Practical Note Book

o Format / Style of writing each practical

o Title of the experiment
o Objective of experiment
o Equipments required
o Theoretical considerations – derivations – background – figures
– schematic diagram
o Stepwise procedure for performing experiment, data collection
o Table for data entry and calculations, graph etc.
o Sample data entry with required calculations and parameters
determination
o Sample results, graphs, parameters estimation
o Conclusions and precautions
o Blank data sheet for students to collect data of the experiment,
part of each experiment
o Practical NB graded, viva, presentations
 Some basic definitions
• Experiment:
• It is a planned inquiry to discover new facts, or to confirm
or deny the results of previous investigations.

1. Absolute
• Determine the absolute value of a trait/traits
• e.g. Correlation, regression etc

2. Comparative
• compare the effect of two or more traits
• e.g. ANOVA
 Some basic definitions

• Design of Experiment: Planning an experiment to obtain

appropriate data with respect to any problem under
consideration

• Purpose of Experimental Design

• To provide maximum information about the problem under
consideration
• To compare the different treatments

• Layout: The physical arrangement of treatments/experimental

materials in experimental units
 Statistical Hypothesis
– There are generally two forms of a statistical hypothesis
• null (typically represented as H0) :
• no differences exit among treatments or treatments are similar
– Rejection of null hypothesis will prove that there are differences
among treatments hence justifying research hypothesis
H0: 1=2=3=. . .= k

• alternative (typically symbolized as H1)

• this is the research hypothesis - the one we are really interested
in showing support for!)

– At least one of the treatment is significantly different

Ha: Not all population means are equal

 • A factor is a variable that the experimenter has selected for
investigation (the independent variable).

• A treatment is a level of a factor or different objects under

comparison in an experiment

• Experimental unit:
– It is piece of experimental material to which a treatment is
assigned and whose effect is to be measured and compared.
– It may be a plot or piece of land

• Experimental Material: material on which experiment is

performed
• Experimental error:
• Variation among the experimental units which are treated
alike

• Control:
• Control in experimental design is used for a treatment.

• Which does not receive any treatment but we need to find out
the effectiveness of other treatments through comparison.
 Basic principles of a well designed experiment
1. Replication:

 A repetition of the basic experiment.

 In all experiments, some variation is introduced because

experimental units such as plots of land in agricultural
experiments cannot be physically identical.

 This type of variation can be removed by using a number of

experimental units.

 The number, the shape and the size of replicates depend upon
the nature of the experimental material.
 Basic principles of a well designed experiment
A replication is used

(i) to provide more accurate estimate of the experimental error

(ii) to decrease the experimental error and thereby to increase

precision, which is a measure of the variability of the experimental
error; and

(iii) to obtain more precise estimate of the mean effect of a

treatment
 Randomization
 A random process of assigning treatments to the experimental
units.

 The random process implies that every possible allotment of

treatments has the same probability.

 The purpose of randomization is to remove bias and other

sources of extraneous variation, which are not controllable.

 Another advantage of randomization (accompanied by

replication) is that it forms the basis of any valid statistical test.
 Randomization

 Hence the treatments must be assigned at random to the

experimental units.

 Randomization is usually done by drawing numbered cards from

a well-shuffled pack of cards, or

 By drawing numbered balls from a well-shaken container or

 By using tables of random numbers.

 Local Control
 It has been observed that all extraneous sources of variation are not removed
by randomization and replication.

 We need to choose a design in such a manner that all extraneous sources of

variation are brought under control.

 The process of reducing the exp. error by dividing the experimental area into
more homogenous blocks with respect to soil fertility

 Blocking means that like experimental units should be collected together to

form a relatively homogeneous group.

 The main purpose of the principle of local control is to increase the efficiency of
an experimental design by decreasing the experimental error.
• Soil Variability

• Competition and Border Effect

• Location and Seasonal Variation

• Cultivar × Environment

• The design of the experiment will depend upon the particular

crop, the number of cultivars to be tested, and the precision
desired in the results.
 Types of experiments

• Laboratory
• Controlled environment
• Green house
• Field
– Yield testing
– Fertilizer response
– Pesticide efficacy
– Herbicide efficacy
– Water requirement
 Row trial
• Row trial is generally conducted in F3 and F4, when the seeds
are not sufficient for replication. 

• Each row consists of about 20 or more plants. 

•
• Individual plants with desirable characteristics are selected
from superior progeny rows.  

• Pest, Disease and lodging susceptible progenies with

undesirable characteristics are eliminated.
 Replicated Row Trial
• It is generally conducted from F3 generation onwards. 

• Depending on availability of seeds, 3-4 more rows are grown

for each progeny to facilitate comparison among progenies
adopting suitable replications. 

• Families, which have become reasonably homozygous may be

harvested in bulk. 
• From those families showing segregation, single plants are
selected for characters under study. 
• The breeder has to visually assess the yielding potential of
progenies and reject the inferior ones in the field and the yield
potential has to be assessed in the laboratory for
confirmation.
 Preliminary Yield Trial or Initial Yield Evaluation Trial
• It is conducted from F5 generation onwards. 

• Preliminary yield trial with three or more replications are

conduct to evaluated the comparative performance of the
genotypes and to identity the superior cultures among them. 

• The genotypes are evaluated for plant height, lodging, pest and
disease resistance, flowering time, grain filling duration and
yield, etc., Quality tests may also be carried out.

• Standard commercial varieties must be included as checks. 

• Ten to fifteen outstanding genotypes, if superior to checks,

would be advanced to the Advanced yield trails.
 Advanced Yield Trial
• Advanced Yield Trial is conducted from F8 generation onwards. 

• The superior genotypes identified from Preliminary Yield Trial are

tested in Replicated Yield Trial. 

• In this trial, the genotypes are evaluated for yield, pest, disease
and lodging resistance, duration, quality, etc.
 Multi Location Trial
• Multi location trial is conducted from F13 onwards for 2 years
by the respective crop coordinator under NUYT. 

• Multi Location Trial are useful for suitability studies i.e.

whether a particular genotype is able to perform well in all
the locations or not and whether the particular genotypes out
yields all the other genotype developed by research stations
and the check variety evaluated simultaneously.

• Based on the evaluation, superior and stable performing

genotype will be promoted for ART, registration, certification
and seed multiplication.
 Analysis Of Variance

– This procedure employs the statistic (F) to test the

statistical significance of the differences among the
obtained MEAN Seq

•two estimates of a population variance are calculated

– Variations among treatment means
– Variation among experimental units within treatments
(experimental error)

•Calculation of statistic F
Basic Experimental designs
• Experimental design:
– It is a rule or formal plan for the assignment of treatments to
be used to the experimental units (plots).
– It is a planned inquiry to discover new facts, or to confirm or
deny the results of previous investigations.

• Why Experiments are designed

– To facilitate the application of treatment and recording of data
– To provide information required to perform tests of
significance
– To increase precision by planned grouping of plots and
elimination of group differences from experimental error
– To provide an estimate of experimental error
Choice of field experimental design
Following points may be considered
– Physical and topographic features of experimental site
– Amount and pattern of soil variability
– Number and nature of treatments
– Crop to be used
– Duration of the experiment
– Nature of the machinery to be used
– Size of the differences to be detected
– Significance level to be used
– Cost required to complete the experiment

• Choose the simplest experimental design which will give the

required precision within the limits of the available resources
 Types of Experimental Designs

1. Screening designs
• e.g. augmented

2. Evaluation designs
• e.g. CRD, RCBD

3. Genetic Designs
• e.g. NC, Diallel, L×T
Completely Randomized Design
(CRD)
One-way ANOVA
• Experimental Unit:
– Piece of experimental material which is assigned with
treatment
– It may be
• Petri plates
• Test tubes
• Pots
• Field plots
• Treatment:
– It is a procedure whose effect is to be noted on expt. Unit
• Genotypes
• Nutrients
• Herbicides
• Pesticides
Degree of freedom
– the number of values in the final calculation of a statistic that are free to
vary

– The number of independent pieces of information that go into the estimate

of a parameter is called the degrees of freedom (df)

– In general, the degrees of freedom of an estimate is equal to the number of

independent scores that go into the estimate minus the number of
parameters estimated as intermediate steps in the estimation of the
parameter itself.

– Imagine you are picking people to play in a team. You have eleven positions
to fill and eleven people to put into those positions. How many decisions do
you have? In fact you have ten, because when you come to the eleventh
person, there is only one person and one position, so you have no choice.
You thus have ten 'degrees of freedom' as it is called.

– Likewise, when you have a sample, the degrees of freedom to allocate

people in the sample to tests is one less than the sample size. So if there are
N people in a sample, the degrees of freedom is N-1.
Randomization
• Randomization by lot Sequence Random Rank (expt Treatment
Number unit #)
– For 4 treatments and 3 reps= 12 expt units
– Make 12 pieces of paper, write down 1-12 1 481 5 A
on these pieces, fold the pieces, place
2 516 6 A
them in box and shake thoroughly
– Pick pieces one by one and allot 3 991 12 A
treatment 1 to first 3 numbers drawn
4 062 1 B
• Random number table
5 804 11 B
– Select a starting point in random number
table 6 675 9 B
– Select first twelve three digit number in
7 154 2 C
any direction from starting point
– Rank them smallest to largest (ranks 8 437 4 C
correspond to expt unit)
9 571 7 C
– Assign treatment 1 to first 3 numbers
(expt unit) 10 769 10 D

11 639 8 D

12 428 3 D
CRD Advantages, disadvantages and uses
• Flexibility:
– Any number of treatments and any number of replications
– Replication per treatment need not to be the same
• Simple statistical analysis
– The analysis is not complicated despite unequal replication of treatment
• Missing plots
– The analysis is not complicated by missing data
• Maximum error degree of freedom
– No other expt. Design provide higher df (e) with similar no. plots and treatments
• Low precision if Expt. Units are not uniform
– i.e. why it is used mainly in lab, green house and controlled environment expts.
• It can be used
– Experimental unit is more uniform
– Number of expt. Units may damaged
– Number of units is limited (it provides maximum error df)
 Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD)
• Widely used in Agricultural experiments

• As easy as CRD

• More precise than CRD provided expt. Units are made uniform
through blocking

• Less flexible than CRD

– equal number of reps for each treat

• One source of variation isolated from Experimental error

 Blocking
Fertility
• Blocks are made Medium Low
High
– To make expt units more
uniform
Slope
– Thus making within block 10%
variation more

Slope
6%

• Number of blocks is equal to

number of reps Slope
2%
RCBD
• ADVANTAGES
– Any no. of treatments and any no. of blocks (but each treatment must be
replicated in each block)
– Statistical analysis is simples
– Broaden the scope of trial by blocking for different conditions
• DISADVANTAGES
– Missing data cause difficulty in analysis
– Less efficient if more than one source of unwanted variation
– Less efficient in than CRD if expt units are uniform

• USES
– It can be used to eliminate source of unwanted variation
– Provides unbiased estimates of the means of blocking
 RCBD – Solved Example

Soil Block

Treatment Rep 1 rep 2 Rep 3 Rep 4 Total Mean

1 32.1 35.6 41.9 35.4 145 36.25
2 30.1 31.5 37.1 30.8 129.5 32.37
3 25.4 27.1 33.8 31.1 117.4 29.35
4 24.1 33 35.6 31.4 124.1 31.02
5 26.1 31 33.8 31.9 122.8 30.70
6 23.2 24.8 26.7 26.7 101.4 25.35

Total 161 183 208.9 187.3 740.5

Mean 26.8 30.5 34.8 31.2 30.85

 RCBD – Solved Example
Correction Factor (CF) = (grand total)2/(no. of treatment* no. of reps or block)
= (740.5)2/ (6*4)
= 548340.3/24
= 22847.51
Total sum of square (TSS) = (32.1)2 + (30.1) 2 + (25.4) 2 + - - - - - - + (26.7) 2 –CF
= 23323.52 - 22847.51
= 476.01
Replication Sum of square (RSS) = (Total Rep1)2 + (Total Rep2) + (Total Rep3) 2/ +
(Total Rep4) 2 / no.of treats-CF
= (161) 2 + (183) 2 + (208.9) 2 + (187.3) 2 /6
= 23021.75 – 22847.51
= 174.24
Treatment Sum of Square (TrSS)= (Total Treat1) 2 + (Total Treat2)2 +(Total
treat3)2 + (Total Treat+ (Total Treat5)+ (Total
Treat6)2 / no.of reps –CF
= (145)2 + (129.5) 2 + (117.4) 2 + (124.1) 2 +
(122.8)2 + (101.4)2 /4 –
CF
= 23085.16 – 22847.51
= 237.64
 RCBD – Solved Example

Error Sum of Squares (ESS) = Total SS- Rep SS - Treatment SS

= 476.01 – 174.24 – 237.64
= 64.13
Mean Square Rep (RMS) =RSS/ rep df
= 174.24/3 = 58.08
Mean Square Treat (TrMS) =TrSS/ traet df
= 237.64/5 = 47.53
Mean Square Error (EMS) =ESS/ (traet df)*(rep df)
= 64.13/15 = 4.28
F-Calc (reps) = RMS/ EMS = 58.08/4.28 = 13.59
F-Calc (treats) = TrMS/ EMS = 47.53/4.28 = 11.12
 RCBD – Solved Example

• CV% = ((SQRT (EMS))/ Grand Mean)*100

= ((SQRT 4.28)/ 30.85)*100
= (2.069/30.85)*100
= 0.067*100
= 6.7%