Statistics

Dr. Rory P Tolentino

Handout #1
Statistics

STATISTICS is a branch of science,

methodology of which deals with the
collection, classification, description and
interpretation of data obtained by the
conduct of surveys and experiments
(Ferguson & Takane, 1989, p 6).
Areas of Statistics

• Descriptive statistics
• Inferential statistics
Variables
When observations on the same phenomenon
vary from trial to trial, the phenomenon is
called a variable.
º Qualitative variable – observations vary in kind
º Quantitative variable – observations vary in
magnitude
• Discrete variable – assumes only a countable
number of values
• Continuous variable – assumes any one of the
countless number of values in a line interval
Parameter and Statistics

Parameters are numerical descriptive

measures of a population (eg. , )

Statistics are numerical descriptive

measures computed from a sample
(eg. x, s)
Method of Sampling
Probability Sampling
• Simple Random
• Systematic
• Stratified Random
• Cluster
Non-probability Sampling
• Purposive or Judgment
• Accidental or convenience
• Quota
• Snowball
Sample Size
The problem of sample size is
complex. Apart from statistical
considerations, sample size is influenced by
many practical matters such as cost,
availability of subjects, complexity of the
treatment to be applied, time limitation,
ethical matters and many other factors. No
definitive answer to the question of sample
size exists unless the investigator is willing
to specify beforehand acceptable value of α
and β.
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics is a branch of

statistics concerned with numerical and
graphical techniques for describing one
or more characteristics of a group and
comparing characteristics between
groups. The central tendency, dispersion
and position are the most commonly
used descriptive statistics.
Measure of Central Tendency

• Mean
• Median
• Mode
Measure of Dispersion

• Range
• Variance
• Standard Deviation
• Coefficient of Variation
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics is a branch of

statistics concerned with the acquisition
of data, with sampling and with the use
of data in making inferences about the
population based on the information
contained in a sample.
Statistical Hypothesis

Testing a statistical hypothesis will provide

evidence relevant to the scientific hypothesis
that give rise to the experiment. The tests of
statistical hypotheses are tests of population
parameters, that is, tests about the properties
of population distributions.
Statistical Hypothesis
Steps in Hypothesis Testing

1. State the null hypothesis (Ho) and the alternative hypothesis (Ha)
2. Choose the level of significance (α).
3.  Select the appropriate test statistic and establish the critical region
4.  Collect the data and compute the value of the test statistic from the
sample data
5.  Make the decision. Reject Ho if the value of the test statistic belongs
in the critical region. Otherwise, fail to reject Ho.
6.  Draw conclusion about the population
Four Elements of Statistical Test

Research Hypothesis: A hypothesis about a

population parameter that we wish to verify
Null Hypothesis: A hypothesis contradictory to the
research hypothesis. It is the hypothesis to be
tested. By contradicting the null hypothesis, we
affirm the research hypothesis.
Test Statistic: A quantity computed from the sample
data.
Rejection Region: A set of values for the test statistic
that are contradictory to the null hypothesis and
implies rejection.
Type of Errors

Type I error (α) is committed if the null

hypothesis is rejected when it is true. This
is also called the level of significance of a
test.

Type II error (β) is committed if the null

hypothesis is not rejected when it is false.
Parametric Tests

Parametric tests are considered to be the most powerful

tests and should be used if their basic assumptions can be
met (Best, 1982).
These assumptions are based on the way the type of
scale is used to quantify the data observations. Parametric
statistical tests assume that the data are:
•Normally or nearly normally distributed
•The observations are independent
•The samples have equal or nearly equal variances
Testing Hypothesis
(Parametric Tests)

Testing Hypothesis on Comparison

• Single Sample: Test Concerning a Single Mean
(Known Variance)
Test Statistic

• Single Sample: Test on a Single mean

(Variance Unknown)
Test Statistic
Testing Hypothesis
(Parametric Tests)

• Two samples: Test on two means

Test Statistic
df = n1+ n2 –2

• Two Samples: Paired Observation

Test Statistic
df = n-1
Testing Hypothesis (Parametric Tests)

• Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – a statistical

technique use to partition the total sum of
squares into portion due to treatment or
interventions and portion due to error
One-Way ANOVA