St.

Paul’s Senior
Secondary School
Katni(M.P)

CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

FOAMING CAPACITY OF
SOAPS

SUPERISED BY:
Mr. SHYAM GUPTA

SUBMITTED BY: GOURAV CHOUDHARY

Roll NO.
Class XII “A”
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that “Gourav Choudhary” a

student of class XII “A” of St.Paul’s Senior
Secondary School on the topic FOAMING
CAPACINTY OF SOAP under the guidence
of our chemistry teacher Mr.Shyam Gupta
and have been completed successfully for
the year 2022-2023.

Internal Signature External Signature

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my profound

gratitude and deep regard to my mentor Mr.
Shyam Gupta for his exemplary guidence,
monitoring and constant encouragement
throughout the course of this project. The
blessing help and guidence given be his time
to shall carry me a long way in the journey of
life on which I am about to embark.
 INDEX

*Introduction
*History
*The Making of Soaps
*Properties
*Universe of Soaps
*Biodegradable & Non-
Biodegradable Soaps.
*Difference between Soap and
detergents.
*Types
*Disadvantages of Soaps
*Experiment
*Conclusion
 SOAP
Soap is a salt of a fatty acid used in a variety of
cleaning & lubricating products. In a domestic setting,
soaps are surfactants usually used for washing,
bathing and other type of housekeeping. In industrial
settings, Soaps are used as thickerners, components
of some lubricants, and precursors to catalysts.

When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes particles and

grime, which can then be separated from the article
being cleaned. In hand washing, as a surfactant, when
lathered with a little water, soap kills microorganisms by
disorganizing their membrane lipid bilayer and
denaturing their protein. It also emulsifies oils, enabling
then to be carried away by running water.

Soap is created by mixing rats and oils with a base. A

similar process is used for making detergent which is also
created by combining chemical compounds in a mixer.

Humans have used soap for milennia. Evidence exists for the
production of soap-like material in ancient Babylon around
2800 BC.
 INTRODUCTION
In chemistry soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Soap are mainly used
as surfactants for washing, bathing, cleaning. Fats and oils are
composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty acids are
attached to a single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution,
which is often called lye, brings about a chemical reaction as
saponification. They have a polar end which is hydrophilic
(water loving) and a long non-polar chain which is hydrophobic
(water hating). As a consequence, they can form emulsion by
suspending oil in water.
Fatty end of water soluble end
CH3-(CH2)n-COONa
soaps are useful for cleaning because soap molecules have both a
hydrophilic end, which dissolve in water, as well as a
hydrophobic end, which is able to dissolve non-polar grease
molecules.
MICELLE
Micelle is an aggregate of surfactant molecule dispersed in a
liquid colloid.
In an aqueous solution, molecules having polar or charged group
and non-polar regions (amphiphilic molecules) form aggregate
called micelle. In a micelle, polar or ionic heads form an outer
shell in contact with water, while non-polartails are sequestered
in the interior.
 HISTORY
Ancient Middle East
Box for Amigo del Obrero (Worker’s Friend) soap from the 20th century,
part of the Museo del Objeto del Objeto collection.
It is uncertain as to who were the first to invent soap. The earliest recorded
evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around
2800 BC in ancient Babylon, A formula for making soap was written on a
Sumerian clay tablet around 2500 BC, the soap was produced by heating a
mixture of oil and wood ash, the earliest recorded chemical reaction, and
used for washing woolen clothing.
The Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates the ancient Egyptians used
soap as a medicine and combined animal fats or vegetable oils with a soda
ash substance called Trona to create their soaps. Egyptian documents
mention a similar substance was used in the preparation of wool for
weaving.
In the reign of Nabonidus (556-539 BC), a recipe for soap consisted of
uhulu{ashes}, cypress[oil] and sesame [seed oil] “for washing the stones
for the servant girls”.
In the Southern Levant, the ashes from barilla plants, such as species of
Salsola saltwort (Seidlitzia rosmarinus) and Anabasis, were used in soap
production, known as potash. Traditionally, olive oil was used instead of
animal lard throughout the Levant, which was boiled in a copper cauldron
for several days. As the boiling progresses, alkali ashes and smaller
quantities of quicklime were added, and constantly stirred. In the case of
lard, it required constant stirring while kept lukewarm until it began to
trace. Once it began to thicken, the brew was poured into a mold and left
to cool and harden for two weeks. After hardening, it was cut into smaller
cakes. Aromatic herbs were often added to the rendered soap to impart
their fragrance, such as yarrow leaves, lavender, germander,etc.
 Roman Empire
Pliny the Elder, whose writings chronicle life in the First Century AD,
describes soap as ‘an invention of the Gauls'.The word sapo, Latin for soap, likely
was borrowed from an early Germanic language and is cognate with Latin sebum, "
tallow". It first appears in Pliny the Elder's account, Historia Naturalis, which
discusses the manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes. There he mentions its
use in the treatment of scrofulous sores, as well as among the Gauls as a dye to
redden hair which the men in Germania were more likely to use than women. The
Romans avoided washing with harsh soaps before encountering the milder soaps
used by the Gauls around 58 BC. ] Aretaeus of Cappadocia, writing in the 2nd
century AD, observes among "Celts, which are men called Gauls, those alkaline
substances that are made into balls [...] called soap".  The Romans' preferred
method of cleaning the body was to massage oil into the skin and then scrape
away both the oil and any dirt with a strigil.The standard design is a curved blade
with a handle, all of which is made of metal. [The 2nd-century AD physician Galen
 describes soap-making using lye and prescribes washing to carry away impurities
from the body and clothes. The use of soap for personal cleanliness became
increasingly common in this period. According to Galen, the best soaps were
Germanic, and soaps from Gaul were second best. Zosimos of Panopolis
, circa 300 AD, describes soap and soapmaking.

Ancient China
A detergent similar to soap was manufactured in ancient China from the seeds
of Gleditsia sinensis.[27] Another traditional detergent is a mixture of pig pancreas
and plant ash called zhuyizi (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin
: zhūyízǐ). True soap, made of animal fat, did not appear in China until the modern
era. Soap-like detergents were not as popular as ointments and creams. [

Middle East
Hard toilet soap with a pleasant smell was produced in the Middle East during
the Islamic Golden Age, when soap-making became an established industry.
Recipes for soap-making are described by Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c.
865–925), who also gave a recipe for producing glycerine from olive oil. In the
Middle East, soap was produced from the interaction of fatty oils and fats with alkali
. In Syria, soap was produced using olive oil together with alkali and lime. Soap
was exported from Syria to other parts of the Muslim world and to Europe.[A 12th-
century document describes the process of soap production. It mentions the key
ingredient, alkali, which later became crucial to modern chemistry, derived from al-
qaly or "ashes".
By the 13th century, the manufacture of soap in the Middle East had become
virtually industrialized, with sources in Nablus, Fes, Damascus, and Aleppo.
 Medieval Europe
Marseille soap in blocks of 600g
Soapmakers in Naples were members of a guild in the late sixth century (then under the
control of the Eastern Roman Empire), and in the eighth century, soap-making was well
known in Italy and Spain. The Carolingian capitulary De Villis, dating to around 800,
representing the royal will of Charlemagne, mentions soap as being one of the products the
stewards of royal estates are totally. The lands of Medieval Spain were a leading soapmaker
by 800, and soapmaking begin in the Kingdom of England about 1200. Soapmaking is
mentioned both as “women’s work” and as the produce of “good workmen” alongside
other necessities, such as the produce of carpenters, blacksmiths, and bakers.
In Europe, soap in the 9 th century was produced from animal fats and had an unpleasant
smell. This changed when olive oil began to be used in soap formulas instead, after which
much of Europe’s soap production moved to the Mediterranean olive-growing regions. Hard
toilet soap was introduced to Europe by Arabs and gradually spread as a luxury item . It was
often perfumed. By the 15th century, the manufacture of soap in the Christendom had
become virtually industrialized, with sources in Antwerp, Castile, Marsellie, Naples and
Venice
15th–18th centuries
In France, by the second half of the 15th century, the semi-industrialized
professional manufacture of soap was concentrated in a few centers of Provence—
Toulon, Hyères, and Marseillewhich supplied the rest of France.In Marseilles, by
1525, production was concentrated in at least two factories, and soap production at
Marseille tended to eclipse the other Provençal centers.English manufacture
tended to concentrate in London.
Finer soaps were later produced in Europe from the 16th century, using
vegetable oils (such as olive oil) as opposed to animal fats. Many of these soaps
are still produced, both industrially and by small-scale artisans. Castile soap is a
popular example of the vegetable-only soaps derived from the oldest "white soap"
of Italy. In 1634 Charles I granted the newly formed Society of Soapmakers a
monopoly in soap production who produced certificates from ‘foure Countesses,
and five Viscountesses, and divers other Ladies and Gentlewomen of great credite
and quality, besides common Laundresses and others’, testifying that ‘the New
White Soap washeth whiter and sweeter than the Old Soap’.
Industrially manufactured bar soaps became available in the late 18th century,
as advertising campaigns in Europe and America promoted popular awareness of
the relationship between cleanliness and health.In modern times, the use of soap
has become commonplace in industrialized nations due to a better understanding
of the role of hygiene in reducing the population size of  pathogenic 
microorganisms.
Caricature of Lillie Langtry, from Punch, Christmas 1890: The soap box on which
she sits reflects her endorsements of cosmetics and soaps.
Until the Industrial Revolution, soapmaking was conducted on a small scale and
the product was rough. In 1780, James Keir established a chemical works at Tipton
, for the manufacture of alkali from the sulfates of potash and soda, to which he
afterwards added a soap manufactory. The method of extraction proceeded on a
discovery of Keir's. In 1790, Nicolas Leblanc discovered how to make alkali from 
common salt.Andrew Pears started making a high-quality, transparent soap, 
Pears soap, in 1807 in London.[44] His son-in-law, Thomas J. Barratt, became the
brand manager (the first of its kind) for Pears in 1865.In 1882, Barratt recruited
English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become the poster-girl for Pears
soap, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.
During the Restoration era (February 1665 – August 1714) a soap tax was
introduced in England, which meant that until the mid-1800s, soap was a luxury,
used regularly only by the well-to-do. The soap manufacturing process was closely
supervised by revenue officials who made sure that soapmakers' equipment was
kept under lock and key when not being supervised. Moreover, soap could not be
produced by small makers because of a law that stipulated that soap boilers must
manufacture a minimum quantity of one imperial ton at each boiling, which placed
the process beyond the reach of the average person. The soap trade was boosted
and deregulated when the tax was repealed in 1853.
William Gossage produced low-priced, good-quality soap from the 1850s. 
Robert Spear Hudson began manufacturing a soap powder in 1837, initially by
grinding the soap with a mortar and pestle. American manufacturer 
Benjamin T. Babbitt introduced marketing innovations that included the sale of bar
soap and distribution of product samples. William Hesketh Lever and his brother, 
James, bought a small soap works in Warrington in 1886 and founded what is still
one of the largest soap businesses, formerly called Lever Brothers and now called 
Unilever. These soap businesses were among the first to employ large-scale 
advertising campaigns.
 THE MAKING OF SOAP.
There are three main ingredients in plain soap, they are
oil/fat, lye/alkali and water. Other ingredients may be
added to give the soap a pleasant odor or color, or to
improve its skin-softening qualities. Some soap is better
made using soft water, and for these it is a necessary to
either use rainwater or to add borax to tap water

Lyes are extremely caustic. They cause burns if splashed on

the skin and can cause blindness if splashed in the eyes. If
drunk, they can be fatal. Care is needed while handling lyes
and ‘green’ (uncured) soap.
There are two types of soap: - Soft & Hard soap.
Soft soap can be made using either a cold process or a hot
process, but hard soap can only be made using hot process.
To make any soap it is necessary to dilute the lye, mix it with
the fat or oil, and stir the mixture until saponification takes
place.
The cold process may require several days or even months,
depending upon the strength and purity of the ingredients,
whereas hot process takes place within few minutes to few
hours.
Dispose of soap-making wastes carefully outdoors, do not
put them in the drain.
several things may cause problem with the normal action of soap molecules.
One of these is the presence of left-over starting materials. Extra fat will
make the soap feel greasy.
Positively-charged ions tend to bond with negative end of the soap
molecules, either precipiting the molecules completely, or interfering with
the ion-dipole interactions between the soap molecules and the water.
TO PREPARE A SAMPLE OF SOAP AND
TO EXAMINE ITS PROPERTIES.
Equipment’s:
 250ml beaker.
 Sodium hydroxide (20% solution)
 100ml beaker
 Ethanol
 Wire gauge
 Saturated solution of sodium chloride
 Laboratory burner
 Calcium chloride (5% solution)
 Glass stirring rod
 Magnesium chloride (5% solution)
 Test tube and ferric chloride (5% solution)
 Filter flask and Buchner funnel
 Kerosene and filter paper
 Phenolphthalein indicator solution
 Cooking oil and graduated cylinder
 Watch glass to extinguish possible ethanol flames

Procedure:
I. Measure 20g of cooking oil into a 250ml beaker. Add
20ml of ethanol and 25ml of 20% sodium hydroxide
solution. Stir the mixture in the beaker. Place the
beaker on wire gauze on a ring stand and heat gently.

Heat this solution gently, keep the flame away from the
top of the beaker to prevent the alcohol from catching
on fire.
II. Heat until the odor disappears.
III. Turn off the burner and allow the beaker to cool down.
IV. Move it safely to bench top.
V. Add 100ml of saturated sodium chloride to your soap
preparation and stir the mixture thoroughly.
VI. It is used to remove the soap from water, glycerol, and
any excess sodium hydroxide present.
VII. Filter off the soap with a vacuum filtration apparatus
and wash once with ice water.
VIII. Weigh your dried soap and record the weight.
Properties:
Washing properties.
Take a small amount of soap and try to wash your hands with it. It
should lather rather easily if soft water or use deionized water.
Record your observations.
Emulsification.
Put 5-10 drops of kerosene in a test tube containing 10ml water and
shake to mix. Emulsion or suspension of tiny oil droplets in water
will be formed. Let this stand for a few minutes
Prepare another test tube with the same ingredients and also add a
small portion (1/2g or so) of your soap. Shake to mix. Compare the
relative stability of the two emulsions.
Hard water reaction.
Take 1g of your soap and warm it with 150ml of water in a 100ml
beaker .
When you have obtained a reasonably clear solution,
pour about 15ml into each of three test tubes.
Test one of the three tubes with 10 drops of 5% CaCl2
solution, one with 10 drops of 5% MgCl2 solution and one
with 10 drops of 5% FeCl3 solution.
Let these solutions stand, then make your observations.
Basicity: - Soap with free alkali can be very damaging to
skin, silk, or wool.
It’s test
Dissolve a small piece of your soap in 15ml of ethanol and
then add two drops of phenolphthalein. It the indicators turn red;
the presence of free alkali is indicated.
Fats and oils are hydrolyzed(split) with a high pressure to yield
crude fatty acids and glycerol.
The fatty acids are then purified by distillation and neutralized
with an alkali to produce soap and water (neat soap in a liquid
form).
Fatty acid + NaOH > glycerol + sodium soap.
Sodium soaps are “hard” soap.
The more saturated the oil (tropical vegetable oils such as
coconut oil), the harder the soap.

Fatty acid + KOH > glycerol + potassium soap

Potassium soap are softer and are found in some liquid hand
soap and shaving cream.
THE UNIVERSE OF DIFFERENT
TYPES OF SOAP.
Kitchen soaps
They are further categorized into two: cleansers and detergents.
Cleansers
Cleansers are often made with mild abrasives and they are formulated to eliminate
heavy oil or solid particles and hard-to-remove stains. The cleansers come in many
different types depending on the type of abrasives they contain.
Detergents
Dish detergents are made to remove tough grease and release the solid dirt particles
in the foam that is produced by the detergent. There are two types of dish
detergents: machine dishwasher detergents and hand dishwashing detergents.
Laundry soaps
Laundry soaps are formulated to eliminate grease, solid particles and organic
compounds from clothes. They can be found in liquid, powder and gel forms.
Cleaning soaps
Cleaning soaps have different formulations to clean grease and soil. The difference
between cleansers and cleaning soaps is that cleaning soaps don't contain harsh
abrasives.
Personal soaps
This kind of soap is made in many forms and special formulations for specific
personal hygiene needs. One type of the personal soap is the antibacterial soap that
is made to prevent bacteria and viruses from spreading. There are also body and
hair soaps that have a mix of ingredients that cleans both the skin and hair.
 Novelty soaps
Novelty soaps are especially manufactured for
the kids and include the soaps
of the shapes of various items, such as a
rubber ducky or the soap-on-the-rope. There are
made not only to clean dirt and grime, but for
amusement and enjoyment as well.
Perfumed soaps
Perfumed soaps are produced by adding a few
additional ingredients and perfume.
Guest soaps
Guest soaps are miniature soaps that are made
and shaped into attractive shapes and they are
basically designed for the use by guests either in
the main bathroom or separate guest bathroom.
Popular and commonly used shapes are flowers,
sea shells and rounds
Beauty soaps
Beauty soaps are produced to feature
attractive fragrances, and ingredients for a
variety of skin types. They can feature glycerin,
or special oil blends.
Medicated soaps
Medicated soaps and original soap are very
similar. Unlike original soap, medicated soap has
the addition of antiseptics and disinfectants
 Glycerin soaps
Glycerin is a normally produced during the process of soap production.
Soaps which include glycerin in them tend to make your skin feel moister.
Transparent soap
Transparent soap uses slightly different ingredients and usually some form
of alcohol to alter the process which is also conducted at higher
temperatures. Not all transparent soaps are glycerin soaps.

Liquid soaps
Liquid soaps are actually very difficult to produce and many of the
commercial liquid soaps are just in fact detergents.
Biodegradable & non-biodegradable
soap.
Biodegradable soap: -
A biodegradable soap is a cleaning agent that can decompose
naturally over time. These soaps can help reduce
environmental impact when hikers, backpackers, and
campers need to bathe or clean their belongings.
Depending on the formulation of soap that is purchased, it
can be used on the body, face, hair, hands and objects such as
dishes and clothes.
 Non-toxic soaps can be made with organic oils so as to
remain environmentally friendly. Oils can be used in soap
formulations not only to provide a nice fragrance, but also as
part of a therapeutic bathing experience. For example, lavender
and peppermint oils can help relax a tense hiker. Tree oil, eucalyptus
and pumice ingredients can help soothe aching feet. Jojoba, castor and almond oils are other common oils
used in soap formulations.
It is important for individuals to realize that using a biodegradable soap does not necessarily mean that the
soap is safe to use around all water sources. These soaps degrade over time, but they require contact with soil
to do so. If it isn't used at least 200 feet (60.96 m) from water sources, it can pollute them and make them
unsuitable for other uses.

Non - biodegradable soap: -

Non-biodegradable soaps are cleaning agents which cannot
decompose naturally over time. This kind of soaps can be a threat
to earth, it can cause soil, water and other type of pollutions.
This kind of soap feels good while using but they can cause some
kind of side effects to the applied surface(skin). Normally
professional and instant beauty soap are made with toxic(non-
biodegradable) material.
Its formulation depends upon the kind of area in which they are going to be used. Soaps with strong smell and constant exposure
to it can even cause nervous breakdown, asthma and migraines. The three harmful ingredients present in this toxic soaps are
parabeans, sulfates and triclosan.
Let me explain what triclosan/triclocarban can do with us.
The chemicals react with chlorine in tap water to produce dioxins. Dioxins are neurotoxins that can cause cancer, nerve
disorders, and immune system disorders. The chemicals are endocrine disrupters, blocking thyroid hormone metabolism and
attaching to hormone receptors to block hormones. According to the EPA, the chemicals can cause developmental and
reproductive toxicity. They are carcinogens. They contribute to antibiotic resistance in bacteria that causes infection in humans.
According to the Natural Resources Defense Council (NDRC), in surveys of the American population between the ages of 6 and
65, 75 percent have residues of triclosan in their systems
 Difference between soap
and detergent.
Soap: -
There are a variety of soaps. A soap is the metal salt of a fatty acid.
The metal may be an alkali metal such sodium (Na) or potassium(K).
These metals are found in the first column of the periodic table of the
elements. Or, the metal can be an alkaline earth metal, such as calcium
(Ca) or magnesium (Mg). These metals are found in the second column
of the periodic table of the elements.
A fatty acid is an organic compound most often of animal or plant
origin. A fatty acid contains a long-chain aliphatic carbon skeleton (with
or without branches) with a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) at its end.
An example of a soap is potassium palmitate:
CH₃(CH₂)₁₄-COO⁻ K⁺
Detergent: -
Detergents have some similarities. But are often of synthetic origin.
They are not made insoluble by mineralized (or hard) water. Also,
instead of a carboxylic acid group, a detergent contains a more highly
ionic group. It may have a sulfate or a sulfonate group (-OS(O)₂-OH).
In addition, detergents can include one or more aromatic rings.
Detergents offer added properties. They can be used as surfactants and
foaming agents.
 There are even detergents that dissolve in
solvents other than water, such as gasoline. These often
include nitrogen in their formulation. The nitroge
compound often includes a ring as part of its structure. Such compounds are not
only detergents, but dispersants.
An example of a detergent is sodium lauryl sulfate:
CH₃(CH₂)₁₂-OS(O)₂-O⁻ Na⁺

Soap and detergent properties in hard water.

The most important difference between a soap and detergent is
their behavior in water. A big drawback of washing with soap is
that it forms a scum in hard water, which is not easy to clean and
is known to turn laundry into a hue. Soaps form a scum in hard
water, which is not easy to rinse away and is known to turn laundry,
a grayish hue. The insoluble film that soap leaves can leave a
residue on the laundry same like as would see in a shower stall
where hard water is present. On the other hand, detergents react
less to minerals in water hence does not leave this residue. In case
you are living in an area, where the water is soft, a soap will work
satisfactorily, but even then a gradual build-up of calcium and
magnesium ions (also called 'curd') will be left on the fabric.

Another important difference between soaps and detergents is

the sensitivity of soaps to acidic conditions. On putting a soap into
an acidic (pH<4.5), it protonates the carboxylate group
 Types
A collection of decorative bar soaps, as often found in hotels
Since they are salts of fatty acids, soaps have the general formula (RCO2−)nMn+ (Where R is an alkyl, M is a metal and n is the charge of
the cation). The major classification of soaps is determined by the identity of Mn+. When M is Na (Sodium) or K (Potassium), the soaps are
called toilet soaps, used for handwashing. Many metal dications (Mg2+, Ca2+, and others) give metallic soap. When M is Li, the result is 
lithium soap (e.g., lithium stearate), which is used in high-performance greases.[4] A cation from an organic base such as ammonium can be used
instead of a metal; ammonium nonanoate is an ammonium-based soap that is used as an herbicide.[5]
Unlike detergents, when used in hard water soap does not lather well and a scum of stearate, a common ingredient in soap, forms as an
insoluble precipitate.

Non-toilet soaps
Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases and thickeners. Greases
are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap and mineral oil. Many other
metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures
thereof. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity
 of oils. In ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to 
olive oil.[
Metal soaps are also included in modern artists' oil paints formulations as a
rheology modifier.
 Production of metallic soaps
Most metal soaps are prepared by the hydrolysis of methane into
ethanoic acid and fatty acids:
RCO2H + CaO → (RCO2)2Ca + H2OToilet soaps[edit]
In a domestic setting, "soap" usually refers to what is technically called
a toilet soap, used for household and personal cleaning. When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes particles and grime, which can then be separated from the article being cleaned. The insoluble oil/fat
molecules become associated inside micelles, tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar hydrophilic (water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-attracting) pocket,
which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water making it soluble. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water.
Production of toilet soaps
The production of toilet soaps entails saponification of triglycerides, which are vegetable or animal oils and fats. An alkaline solution (often lye or sodium hydroxide) induces saponification whereby the
triglyceride fats first hydrolyze into salts of fatty acids. Glycerol (glycerin) is liberated. The glycerin can remain in the soap product as a softening agent, although it is sometimes separated. [10]
The type of alkali metal used determines the kind soap product . Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, derived from potassium hydroxide, are softer or
often liquid. Historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard. These are used exclusively in greases.For making toilet soaps, 
triglycerides (oils and fats) are derived from coconut, olive, or palm oils, as well as tallow.[Triglyceride is the chemical name for the triesters of fatty acids and glycerin. Tallow, i.e., rendered fat, is the most
available triglyceride from animals. Each species offers quite different fatty acid content, resulting in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap made from pure olive oil
.sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, is reputed for
its particular mildness. The term "Castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps from a mixture of oils, but a high percentage of olive oil.
DISADVANTAGES OF
SOAPS
 Experiment

Objective: -
To compare the foaming capacity
of various soaps.
Requirements: -
1. Five 100ml conical flasks
2. Five test tubes & stand
3. 100ml measuring cylinder
4. Weighing machine and stop watch
5. Five different soap samples
6. Distilled water & tap water
Procedure: -
i. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them 1,2,3,4 & 5. Put
16ml of water in each flask and add 8g of soap.
ii. Warm the contents to get a solution.
iii. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap solution to 3ml of water.
Repeat the process for each soap solution in different test tube.
 iv. Close the mouth of the test tube and shake
vigorously or a minute. Do the same for all test tube
and with equal force.
v. Start the timer immediately and notice the repeat of
disappearance of 2mm of forth.
Observations: -
The following outcomes were noticed at the end of the experiment

Observation table
 Result: -
The cleaning capacity of the soap taken is in the order:

Savlon > Dettol > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux

Savlon is the winner….

From this experiment, we can infer that
Savlon has the highest forming capacity, in other
words, highest cleaning capacity.
 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, soap is a substance, water soluble
sodium salts of fatty acid, that is used to remove dirt and
grimes from a surface. Its molecules have a long
hydrocarbon chain that has a negative charged head. Its non-
polar hydrocarbon chain dosent interact with water
molecules that form micelles. The soap micelles repeal each
other and stay dispersed in water. New micelles form that
having soiling molecules in the center. The dirt gets attached
to them and can be rinsed away.
From this project we concluded that, since soap is started to
consumed it has changed

We should say thanks’ to soap’s…because

without soaps this world would literally
would not be exist..