Physical Tesing of Rubber

1 st Week
Ekaroek Phumnok
Rubber and Polymer Technology
SCOPE
• This subject is restricted to the testing of rubbers as
finished materials; we used to say testing of
vulcanised rubber but now thermoplastic rubber
materials can be included.
• Hence, processibility tests are excluded.
• As the title implies, chemical analysis is not covered
and cellular materials and coated fabrics are also
outside of the present scope.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• To properly consider which properties should be
measured.
• How the test should be carried out it is necessary to
first clearly identify why we are testing.
• Because the requirements for each of the reasons will
be different.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• The purposes of testing may be summarised as
follows:
• Quality Control
• Design Data
• Predicting Service Performance
• Investigating Failures
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• It may be an obvious point that the requirements for each
reason are different.
• But lack of consideration of why another person is testing.
• What they need to get from their tests frequently leads to
poor appreciation of the merits and limitations of a
particular test and inhibits communication between.
• For example, the university researcher and the factory
floor quality controller.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• There are a number of general requirements for a
test method; it must have adequate precision,
reproducibility, and so on.
• There are, however, particular attributes related to
the reason for testing.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• For quality control: the test should preferably be as
simple, rapid and inexpensive as possible.
• Non-destructive methods and automation may be
particularly attractive.
• The best tests will additionally relate accurately to
product performance.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• For producing design data: the need is for tests
which give material properties in such a form that
they can be applied with confidence to a variety of
configurations.
• This implies very considerable understanding of the
way material properties vary with geometry, time,
etc.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• For producing design data: the need is for tests
which give material properties in such a form that
they can be applied with confidence to a variety of
configurations.
• This implies very considerable understanding of the
way material properties vary with geometry, time,
etc.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• Extreme speed and cheapness are of relatively minor
importance, there is little interest in non-
destructive methods.
• For complex and long-running tests, automation may
be desirable.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• For predicting service performance: the essence of
the test must be that it relates to service - the more
relevant the test to service conditions, the more
satisfactory it is likely to be.
• Extreme speed and cheapness are less likely to be
important but there is a need for test routines which
are not excessively complex.
• Non-destructive methods may be acceptable.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• For investigating failures: at least half of the battle is
knowing what to look for, to prove a dificiency needs,
more than anything, a test which discriminates well.
• There is often no need for absolute accuracy or in
some cases even relevance to service.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• There is of course nothing black and white about
attributing these requirements to the reasons for
testing, but they indicate the emphasis which usually
applies in each case.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• Tests are generally classified by the parameters to be
measured - mechanical, thermal, electrical, environmental
etc.
• These can be sub-divided to list the actual properties so
that, for example, under mechanical there would be
strength, stiffness, creep and so on.
• In terms of the purposes for testing given above and
appreciating what we need to get from a particular
method these headings are not particularly useful.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• A more generalised way of classifying tests is to
consider:
• Fundamental properties or tests
• Apparent properties or tests
• Functional properties or tests
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• Whichever type of property and particular parameter we choose, this
classification can help in considering what is needed from the result
and hence which test method should be used.
• Taking the example of strength, the fundamental strength of a
material is that measured in such a way that the result can be
reduced to a form independent of test conditions.
• The apparent strength of a material is that obtained by a standard
method which has completely arbitrary conditions.
• The functional strength is that measured under the mechanical
conditions of service, probably on the complete product.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• This classification can be loosely linked to the reasons for testing.
• For quality control we do not need to know fundamental properties,
apparent properties will often be acceptable, with functional
properties certainly being desirable.
• For design data we really need fundamental properties although we
can get considerable help from functional properties. For
predicting service performance the most suitable properties would
be the functional ones.
• For investigating failures we are again unlikely to need fundamental
methods.
THE REASONS FOR TESTING
• It becomes clear that there is never one direction in the
development of test methods and apparatus.
• As the requirements for different purposes vary so the
perceived deficiencies in the methods available are viewed
differently and hence the emphasis and effort of development is
differently targeted.
• However, when collected together the advances which people wish
to see have remained consistent over many years - quicker tests,
cheaper tests, more reproducible tests, better design data and
tests which are more relevant to service performance.
STANDARDS
• Nationally and internationally standardised test methods are produced
primarily to ensure comparability - that all laboratories are measuring the
same thing in the same way.
• They also put tolerances to the various apparatus and procedure
parameters in an attempt to minimise the variability between results from
different laboratories.
• This uniformity and consistency which standards seek is directly of value
whatever the purpose that the test method is used for.
• However, the success of a particular standard test method for any particular
purpose will also depend on the type of property it can measure, as
discussed above.
STANDARDS
• By far the greatest use of testing is for the quality control and
specification of materials and, coupled with the
limitations of knowledge and apparatus when standard
methods were first formulated, it is inevitable that the
majority are clearly most suitable for quality assurance
purposes.
• However, committees preparing standard test methods are
fully aware that testing is carried out for more than one
purpose and hence have all the possibilities in mind.
STANDARDS
• One result is, that as standards have developed, multiple choices for test
conditions and data reported are given and the user must understand the
subject sufficiently well to make an intelligent selection of conditions, to suit
his purpose.
• The simple example is given of resistance to liquids.
• A quality control procedure may involve one liquid at one temperature for a
relatively short time.
• The liquid might be a standardised fuel such as liquid B of ISO 1817 and the
test involve 24 hour exposure with volume change being measured.
• A rapid measuring method such as area change may be used to fully speed
up testing.
STANDARDS
• If the test was intended to have a performance function then the liquid met in service
would be used, for example commercial petrol, and testing continued long enough
for equilibrium absorption to be reached.
• Apart from volume change other relevant physical properties would be measured
before and after exposure.
• For development purposes testing would be further extended to cover a number of
fluids each tested at several temperatures.
• An international or national standard would attempt to cater for these and other
possibilities and would hence include a choice of measuring procedure, test
temperature, duration of exposure, properties to be monitored and test liquids.
• This example can also serve to indicate how a basic standard method can be adapted
and extended to be more useful for obtaining design or performance data.
STANDARDS
• If the test was intended to have a performance function then the liquid met in service
would be used, for example commercial petrol, and testing continued long enough
for equilibrium absorption to be reached.
• Apart from volume change other relevant physical properties would be measured
before and after exposure.
• For development purposes testing would be further extended to cover a number of
fluids each tested at several temperatures.
• An international or national standard would attempt to cater for these and other
possibilities and would hence include a choice of measuring procedure, test
temperature, duration of exposure, properties to be monitored and test liquids.
• This example can also serve to indicate how a basic standard method can be adapted
and extended to be more useful for obtaining design or performance data.
STANDARDS
• As standard methods have undergone periodic revision in recent years they
have also tended to become more involved, as more factors which cause
variability are identified, and control of them is specified.
• Many methods now contain more explanatory matter about the effect of
different test conditions and the significance of results, intended as an aid to
their use for purposes other than basic quality control.
• However, standardised methods in general remain limited as to the scope
oftheir useful application, perhaps primarily because of economic
restraint to what is needed for direct trade as opposed to development.
• Nevertheless, they also remain by far and away the most important
source of test procedures.
STANDARDS
• As standard methods have undergone periodic revision in recent years they
have also tended to become more involved, as more factors which cause
variability are identified, and control of them is specified.
• Many methods now contain more explanatory matter about the effect of
different test conditions and the significance of results, intended as an aid to
their use for purposes other than basic quality control.
• However, standardised methods in general remain limited as to the scope
oftheir useful application, perhaps primarily because of economic
restraint to what is needed for direct trade as opposed to development.
• Nevertheless, they also remain by far and away the most important
source of test procedures.
STANDARDS
• Methods have been standardised for almost all properties
likely to be wanted for rubbers.
• Increasingly, national methods are equivalent to, or exact
copies of, the international methods but unfortunately this
is by no means universally the case, some countries being
much better than others in this respect.
• The current ISO (International Standards Organisation)
methods are listed in table 1.
Table 1. ISO Standard Relevant to Rubber
Testing
ISO 34 Determination of tear strength ISO 1431-1 Resistance to ozone cracking: Part
(trouser, angle and crescent test 1 Static strain tests
pieces)
ISO 36 Determination of adhesion to ISO 1431-2 Resistance to Ozone cracking:
textile fabric Part 2 Dynamic strain test
ISO 37 Determination of tensile stress- ISO 1432 Determination of low temperature
strain properties stiffness (Gehman test)
 
ISO 48 Determination of hardness ISO 1433 Preferred graduations of
(between 30 and 85 IRHD) properties

ISO 132 Determination of flex cracking ISO 1817 Determination of the effect of
(De Mattia) liquids
Table 1. ISO Standard Relevant to Rubber
Testing
ISO 133 Determination of crack growth
(De Mattia)
ISO 188 Accelerated ageing or heat
resistance tests
ISO 471 Standard temperatures,
  humidities and times for the
conditioning and testing of test
pieces
ISO 812 Determination of low
temperature brittleness
ISO 813 Determination of adhesion to
metal - One plate method
ISO 814 Determination of adhesion to
metal - Two plate method
ISO 1818 Determination of hardness (10-35
IRHD)
ISO 1826 Time interval between
vulcanisation and testing
ISO 1827 Determination of modulus in
shear or adhesion to rigid plates -
Quadruple shear method
ISO 1853 Conducting and antistatic rubbers
- measurement of resistivity
ISO 2285 Determination of tension set at
normal and high temperatures
ISO 2393 Rubber test mixes - Preparation,
mixing and vulcanization Equipment
and procedures
Table 1. ISO Standard Relevant to Rubber
Testing
ISO 815 Determination of compression
set at ambient, elevated or low
ISO 2781 Determination of density

temperatures
ISO 816 Determination of tear strength of
small test pieces (Delft test
pieces)
ISO 1399  Determination of permeability to
dynamic gases - constant volume
method
ISO 1400 Determination of hardness (85-
100 IRHD)
ISO 1400 Determination of adhesion to
metal - One plate method
ISO 814 Determination of adhesion to
metal - Two plate method
ISO 2782 Determination of penneability to
gases- Constant pressure method
ISO 2856 General requirements for testing
ISO 2878 Antistatic and conductive products
-Determination of electrical
resistance
ISO 2285 Determination of tension set at
normal and high temperatures
ISO 2393 Rubber test mixes - Preparation,
mixing and vulcanization Equipment
and procedures
Table 1. ISO Standard Relevant to Rubber
Testing
ISO 2921 Determination of low ISO 4662 Determination of rebound
temperature resilience
characteristics – Temperature
retraction procedure (TR)
ISO 2951 Determination of insulation ISO 4663 Determination of dynamic
resistance behaviour at low frequencies
Torsion pendulum method
ISO 3383 General directions for achieving ISO 4664 Determination of dynamic
elevated or subnormal properties for classification
temperatures for test purposes (by forced sinusoidal
purposes shear strain)
ISO 3384 Determination of stress relaxation ISO 4665-1 Resistance to weathering: Part 1
in compression Assessment of changes in
properties after exposure to
natural weathering or artificial
light
Table 1. ISO Standard Relevant to Rubber
Testing
ISO 3384 Determination of stress relaxation ISO 4665-1 Resistance to weathering: Part 1
in compression Assessment of changes in
properties after exposure to
natural weathering or artificial
light
ISO 3387 Determination of crystallization ISO 4665-2 Resistance to weathering: Part 2
effects by hardness Method of exposure to natural
measurements weathering
ISO 4637 Determination of rubber fabric ISO 4666-1 Determination of temperature rise
adhesion - Direct tension and resistance to fatigue in
method flexometer testing: Part 1 Basic
principles
ISO 4647 Determination of static adhesion ISO 4666-2 Determination of temperature rise
to textile cord - H-pull test and resistance to fatigue in f!
exometer testing: Part 2 Rotary
flexometer
Table 1. ISO Standard Relevant to Rubber
Testing
ISO 4648 Determination of dimensions of
test pieces
ISO 4666-3 Determination of temperature rise
and resistance to fatigue in
and products for test purposes flexometer testing: Part 3
Compression f!exometer
ISO 4649 Determination of abrasion ISO 5600 Determination of adhesion to rigid
resistance materials using conical shaped
using a rotating cylindrical drum parts
device
ISO 4661-1 Preparation of samples and test ISO 5603 Determination of adhesion to wire
pieces: Part 1 Physical tests card
ISO 5893 Rubber and plastics test ISO 6943 Determination of tension fatigue
equipment - Tensile, flexural and
compression types (Constant
rate of traverse)
ISO 6133 Analysis of multi-peak traces ISO 7619 Determination of indentation
obtained in hardness by means of pocket
determinations of tear strength hardness meters
and adhesion strength
Table 1. ISO Standard Relevant to Rubber
Testing
ISO 6179 Determination of transmission ISO 7743 Determination of compresion
rate of volatile liquids (Gravimetric technique)
stress-strain
properties
ISO 6471 Determination of crystallization ISO 8013 Determination of creep in
effects under compression compression or shear
ISO 6505 Determination of adhesion to and ISO TR Determination of precision for test
corrosion of metals 9272 method standards
ISO 6914 Determination of ageing
characteristics by measurement
of stress at a given elongation
STANDARDS
• In contrast, those needing tests for quality control are more
satisfied with existing methods, but nevertheless an equally
consistent complaint is that the tests should be quicker and
cheaper to perform.
• Vast strides have been made in efficiency through
automation of equipment but such are commercial
pressures that further improvement continues to be sought.
STANDARDS
• In the same way that tests based on arbitrary conditions are
deficient for design data purposes so they may tend to lack in
their direct relevance to service conditions and hence their
value for predicting service performance.
• The two situations are not identical, in particular a test may
simulate service use to enable predictions to be made, but
not yield data which could be used in design calculations.
• Increasingly, for both product proving and quality control
there is a demand for tests which are better for this purpose.
STANDARDS
• Improved reproducibility of tests has always been desired
but it is only relatively recently, largely through the demands
made by the quality movement, that the true scale of the
problem has been fully appreciated.
• Long established standard methods were found to have
far poorer reproducibility than previously realised, in some
cases to the extent that it could be questioned whether the
tests are worth doing and whether specifications
STANDARDS
• Improved reproducibility of tests has always been desired but it is only
relatively recently, largely through the demands made by the quality
movement, that the true scale of the problem has been fully appreciated.
• Long established standard methods were found to have far poorer
reproducibility than previously realised, in some cases to the extent that it
could be questioned whether the tests are worth doing and whether
specifications based on them are valid.
• Hence there has been a large rise in the interest in improving reproducibility,
although this is more often focused on better standardisation and
calibration of test parameters than on new methods.
STANDARDS
• A somewhat paradoxical situation has arisen in the last decade because of the
increased activity and interest in data bases.
• A measure of the pressure for better design data and the criticism of standardised
methods has been turned to a demand for very tightly standardised data.
• To be comparable, data in a data bank all need to be produced in exactly the
same way, and the development of standards to offer a choice of method and
several choices of conditions for the same property is not compatible with
this need.
• There has arisen therefore a lobby for what might be termed extreme standards,
those specifically intended to yield completely compatible data, very efficiently,
in relatively large quantity and possibly at the expense of other attributes.