FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY

Module -1

Basics of Psychology

Dr. Sonia Shali 1

 Session Highlights
• Introduction
• Defining Basic Psychology
• Scope and Importance
• Principles od Development
• Attention and Perception
• Process of Learning
• Memory and Forgetting
• Motivation, Attitudes
• Values of Emotions
• Behavioural Problems
• Conflict and Use of Defense Mechanisms
• Psychology of Criminal Behaviour Dr. Sonia Shali 2
Psychology is Science

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 Introduction

• Psychology is the Study of the Mind and Behaviour

• Psychology can be defined as the study of mental processes and behaviour. The
term comes from the Greek words psyche, meaning "breath, spirit, soul,"
and logia, meaning "study of."
• Psychology has not always existed as it has today but is considered a relatively
young discipline, although as the eminent psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus
clarified, it has a short past but a long history
• Psychology emerged from biology and philosophy and is closely linked to other
disciplines including sociology, medicine, linguistics, and anthropology.
• Psychology has quickly grown to play a remarkable role in the world today as
psychologists are employed in hospitals, mental health clinics, schools, colleges
and universities, government agencies, private businesses and private practices
• Perform a diverse roles and responsibilities ranging from treating mental illness to
performing research to influencing publicDr. Soniahealth
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Psychology Relies on Scientific Methods

• Most common myths about psychology is that it is just "common sense." The problem

with this is that psychological research has helped demonstrate that many of the things
that we believe are just common sense are actually not true at all
• "common sense" that smoking cigarettes is dangerous, people continue to smoke
anyway….. Psychology helps us go deeper than common sense and understand why
human behaviour occurs, as well as how to change it
• By challenging some of our misconceptions about how and why people behave as they
do, psychologists are able to provide answers that help solve real-world problems
• Psychology relies on scientific methods to investigate questions and arrive at
conclusions. Using empirical methods, researchers are able to discover relationships
between different variables
• Psychologists use a range of techniques to study the human mind and behaviour,
including naturalistic observation, experiments, case studies, scales and questionnaires
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 Psychologists Take Multiple Perspectives

• Topics and questions in psychology can be observed at in a number of

different ways as each perspective helps contribute a new level of
understanding to a area. Some of the major perspectives in
psychology include:
1. Biological perspective
2. Cognitive perspective
3. Behavioural perspective
4. Evolutionary perspective
5. Humanistic perspective
Investigating Bullying from all these perspective
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 Subdivisions of Psychology

1. Clinical psychology - mental and behavioral health care

2. Cognitive psychology - focuses on mental processes such as attention, thinking, language,
and memory
3. Developmental psychology - study human behavior over a lifespan
4. Forensic psychology - focuses on psychological assessment of people and scientific analysis
5. Industrial-organizational psychology - addresses the workplace as well as human
performance and motivation
6. Personality psychology - addresses personality and its development, traits, variations, and
maladaptive forms (such as personality disorders)
7. Social psychology - human behavior in a group setting. They study group behaviors such as
prejudice, bias, bullying, criminal behavior, and substance use
8. Positive Psychology - focuses on how to help human beings prosper and lead healthy, happy
lives Dr. Sonia Shali 8
Research and Professional Areas

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 Nature and Scope

Nature of the subject in psychology is scientific

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We can study the scope from various fields or areas as
listed below

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1.  People Skills
2. Success Strategies
3. Personal Therapy
4. Problem-Solving Skills
5. Conceptual Reasoning
6. Communication Skills
7.  Behavioural Training Skills
8. Memorisation Techniques
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 Principles of Development

• A concept in Developmental psychology - explores the principles of

physical, mental and emotional growth and development in children and
teenagers
• Human beings keep changing during their lives, they change in size,
appearance and psychological make up
• The way they change differs from individual to individual but the
fundamental underlying patterns of growth and development remain more
or less the same and take place in an orderly way
• Each individual, with his unique heredity and the way s/he is nurtured,
determines the way he traverses the broad highway of his life at his rate of
progress
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 Human Development
• Human being is never static
• From conception to death we undergo changes,
progressive changes in response to environment conditions
• Body organs and psychological functions show the curves of capacity and achievement as well
as slow erosion and decay
• Cognitive abilities develop and then degenerate; basic metabolism reaches a peak and then
declines, the endocrine function flourishes and then fades
• There is a rise and fall of physical energy in terms of both the force and speed of action with age
• In fact no organ or function of human beings has yet been found which is independent of age
determinants
• At the time of conception a child has genetic pollentialities that are partly predictable and partly
unpredictable
• These genetic potentialities are determined by the nature of his biological inheritance
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 The Concept

• The terms growth and development are often used interchangeably and are conceptually
different
• Neither growth nor development takes place all by itself
• Growth refers to quantitive changes in size which include physical changes in height, weight,
size, internal organs, etc.
• As an individual develops, old features like baby fat, hair and teeth, etc., disappear and new
features like facial hair etc.. are acquired
• When maturity comes, the second set of teeth, primary and secondary sex characteristics, etc.,
appear. Similar changes occur in all aspects of the personality
• During infancy and childhood, the body steadily becomes larger, taller and heavier
• To designate this change the term growth is used
• Growth involves changes in body proportions as well as in overall stature and weight
• The term growth thus indicates an increase in bodily dimensions. But the rate of growth differs
from one part of the body to the other Dr. Sonia Shali 16
 Development

• Refers to qualitative changes taking place simultaneously with quantitative

changes of growth
• It may be defined as a progressive series of orderly, coherent changes that are
directional, lead forward rather than backward, there is a definite relationship
between the changes taking place and those that precede or will follow them
• Development represents changes in an organism from its origin to its death,
but more particularly the progressive changes which take place from origin to
maturity
• Thus, development can be understood as the series of overall changes in an
individual due to the emergence of modified structures and functions that are
outcome of the interactions and exchanges between the organism and its
environment
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 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

• Any development process proceeds

through some stages and each
development stage differs from the
other. Each stage of development has
its characteristic
• Psychologists, for the sake of
convenience, have separated human
life span into stages or periods and
identified specific changes that may College /university
be expected during each stage. The
transition from one stage to another
is gradual rather than sudden

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• Human development involves change that occurs at various stages of
development and the development pattern at each stage has predictable
characteristics
• Development is a product of Maturity and Learning
• Maturity is more or less automatic, unfolding biological potential
• It is an irreversible sequence and entails biological changes
• Such changes are relatively independent of environmental factors as long as
environmental factors remain normal
• There is a more or less permanent change in human behaviour from the
individual's experience in the environment
• Learning occurs across the entire life span, differs from maturity but depends
on the process of maturing i.e. individual readiness (mental and physical) for
certain activities
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1. Continuity - a continuous process from conception to death
2. Sequentiality - Most psychologists agree that development is sequential or
orderly. Every species, whether animal or human, follows a pattern of
development peculiar to it. This pattern in general is the same for all individuals.
In prenatal development there is a genetic sequence, appearing at fixed intervals
with certain characteristics
3. Generality to Specificity - Development proceeds from general to specific. In all
areas of development, general activity always precedes specific activity For
example, the foetus moves its whole body but is incapable of making specific
responses. In early postnatal life, infants wave their arms randomly. They can
make such specific responses as reaching out for an object near them. In
language, from genetic sounds emerge words and then specific sentences with
meaning
4. Differentiality - Individuals differ in the rate of growth and development. Male
and Female have different development rates. Each part of the body has its own
particular rate of growth. Dr. Sonia Shali 20
• Development does not occur at an even pace but there are periods of great intensity
and equilibrium and there are periods of imbalance
• Development achieves a plateau and this may occur at any level or between levels
• Developmental changes do not always go forward in a straight line. While the
development of different physical and mental traits is continuous, it is never uniform
• Since the body has to attain its adult proportions, inequalities in rates occur
• The feet, hands and nose, for example, reach maximum development early in
adolescence, while the lower part of the face and the shoulders develop more slowly
• Mental abilities like verbal, numerical, spatial, etc., develop at different ages
• Creative imagination develops 'rapidly in childhood and reaches its peak in early
adolescence
• Reasoning develops slowly
• Rote memory and memory for concrete objects and facts develop more quickly than
memory for the abstract
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 Suggested Reading
• https://youtu.be/vo4pMVb0R6M
• Craig J Grace (1983) : Human Development, Prentice Hall, INC,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
• Wolman, B.B. (Ed), (1982) : Handbook of Developmental Psychology,
Prentice Hall : Englewood,Cliffs, N.J.

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 Attention and Perception

Physical & Psychological Influences

• Perception is the way people interpret and Perception

organize information from the world around

• Attention is the cognitive process of

selectively concentrating on one aspect of the
environment while ignoring other things

• Once the brain gathers information from the surrounding

environment, attention allows one to select on what they
want to focus on from the brain. Dr. Sonia Shali 23
 Definition
• Perception is the organization, identification and interpretation of the
information you receive through your senses. Your brain uses perception in
order to understand the information received. In simple words, the
interpretation your brain makes based on what you see, hear, smell, feel,
taste and how that correlates to previous memories.

Sensory Nervous System

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 HOT

Cold

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Perception has 3 components :

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Factors influencing Perception

• Factors in the perceiver:

Attention
Expectations
Experience
Interest
Attitudes
Motives

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Factors Influencing Visual
perception
• Factors in the Target:
• Colour
• Size
• Background
• Proximity
• Motion
• Shape

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What is Going On ?

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Why is it important?
• Your perception is your ability of understanding or becoming aware of
information received through your senses.
• This process is important because it helps you to interpret and understand
everything around you.
• Without this cognitive skill, the face of someone you know would just be a
combination of colors, shapes, dept etc. You wouldn’t even be able to
differentiate the smell of a rose from a pizza that would be burning in your
oven. These smells would just be smells you wouldn’t be able to make meaning
out of it.

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 The most important
organs of sense are our
eyes, touch and ears while
driving (taste is not
relevant to driving). We
perceive up to 80% of all
impressions by means of
our sight. And if other
senses such as taste or
smell stop working, it's the
eyes that best protect us
from danger

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 How are perceptions created?

• The process of forming your perception of the

world around you, begins with the situation of your
environment existing of all kinds of information.
• Although receiving this information and interpreting
it happens faster than you can blink, a whole
process precedes before a perception is made.
• This process is learnt by going through the stages
that occur during this process. Let’s say you
perceive a freshly baked muffins that is taken out of
the oven in front of you.
• These are the stages of the process of how a
perception is created
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Stage 1: Sensory stimuli sent by your environment
 Our environment is full of different types of information, surrounded by different sounds, sights, smells
and more. before our brain gives a meaning to this information with our perception, this is just raw
information. In our example, we saw a freshly baked muffin being taken out of the oven. But at this stage,
the muffin and the oven are just shapes, colors, lights and smells and nothing more. Without having any
meaning to you yet.

Stage 2: Sensory receptors receiving stimuli

 Before our brain can even create a perception, it needs to receive the information about our environment
or situation. our senses receive all this information, this is also known as sensation. The receptors of our
senses receive the information, these are our feeling (haptic), hearing (echoic), sight (iconic), smell
(olfactory) and taste (gustatory) senses. At this moment the information still only exists out of shapes,
colors, lights etc., but our brain has now taken notice of these sensations.

In the example, our hearing might receive information of the oven still running, our smell might receive
information coming from the muffin and our sight might receive information of the shapes of both the oven
and the muffin. Do you experience that you are already seeing, smelling and perhaps even tasting the pie?
This is your perception and memory at work
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 Stage 3: Attention filtering irrelevant information - cognitive skill attention
Although this not might be a perception specific step, it is an important step in making
perceptions from relevant information. Instead of your brain actually receiving all
information that your senses pick up. The sensory receptors actually pick up a lot more
information than what you’re focused on. Without the cognitive skill attention, our brain
would become overloaded and unable to function.

Stage 4: Information being sent towards relevant parts of the brain

 The relevant information that has been received through the senses, is being sent towards
the relevant parts of the brain. This is possible because of the nervous system, which sends
messages across your brain. This process is also called a neural impulse. The message that
is being send, is being carried by what we call a neuron. The sending and receiving of this
impulse happens very quickly, you could compare it to flipping a switch of a light in the
room. When flipping the light switch, electricity flows from the switch to the light through
the wires. Just like the switch example, the neural impulse is an electric impulse.
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Stage 5: Relevant brain parts receive and interpret the information

• After receiving the information, your brain organizes and interprets the information
to create context.
• The information about lights, shapes and colors will be organized and interpreted
within the occipital lobe (responsible for vision)
• The information about the smell of the freshly baked pie will be organized and
interpreted within the frontal lope, more specifically on the purple spot in the image
below. Just like your vision, the combination of the information stored within your
memory and the information received through the nose will be recognized as the
smell of a freshly baked muffin.
• The information about sound will be organized and interpreted by within the green
spot of the image below. This is a part of the brain we call the Temporal lobe. The
sound you hear will now be recognizable as the sound of an oven that is still on.

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 How Psychologists Define Attention

• Attention has long posed a major challenge for psychologists ,

whatever school of thought they may subscribe to, whatever
methodologies they may employ.
• As with many fundamental topics in psychology, the role of
attention in mental life was noticed and discussed long before
psychology became an independent discipline.
• Attention is the ability to actively process specific information in the
environment while tuning out other details.
• Attention is limited in terms of both capacity and duration, it is
important to have ways to effectively manage the attentional
resources we have available in order to make sense of the world.

• Visit a garden……..understand the series of events ……. Recollect

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William James Psychologist -The Father of American Psychology

• In his 1890 book “The Principles of Psychology,” wrote that attention "is the taking possession by
the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what may seem several simultaneously possible
objects or trains of thought. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with
others.

There are broadly four forms of attention:

1. Selective Attention
2. Divided Attention
3. Sustained Attention
4. Executive Attention

Selective Attention - When bombarded with numerous

attention grabbing environmental factors or stimuli, our
brain selectively focus on particular stimuli and block
out other stimuli consciously. This term of attention is known as selective attention.
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• Divided Attention - It refers to the ability to
maintain attention on two or more tasks
simultaneously. For example, texting while talking
to someone. According to some psychologists it is
the ability to multi-task.
• Executive Attention - This form of attention helps
us in blocking out unimportant features of the
environment and motivates us to attend only
those features that are important of our goal
accomplishment.
• Sustained Attention - This form of attention helps
us in maintaining focus or concentration on one
task for a prolonged period of time

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 Process of Learning – The Psychology of Learning
1. A process that consists of several mental processes. It results in
changed behavior
2. The steps followed into receiving, understanding and recreating
knowledge
3. It is the process of in which an individual or group uses, adapts and
reproduces structures or appropriates the structures
4. The completion of the learning cycle that includes active testing,
concrete experiences, reflective observation, and abstract
hypothesis
5. Activities carried out to achieve educational objectives. They are
carried out individually, although this takes place in a cultural and
social context, in which people combine their new knowledge with
their previous cognitive structures
6. A process that people pass through to acquire new knowledge and
skills and ultimately influence their attitudes, decisions and actions
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 According to Oxford Learning, "cognitive learning" is the function
based on how a person processes and reasons information.
 It revolves around many factors, including problem-solving skills,
memory retention, thinking skills and the perception of learned
material.
 Cognitive learning happens both consciously and
unconsciously, meaning information is acquired and processed
at all times.
 Individuals differ when conscious learning occurs; some people
are visually cognitive, while others learn best from hearing the
information.
 Example……watching a video tutorial on how to use a tool, as
opposed to reading the instruction manual. For individuals with
challenges in learning, changes in how information is received
can increase retention.

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 Concept of learning

 An individual feels anxious when he sees a doctor with a needle and syringe
 Most of us can cook, ride a bicycle, swim, play tennis or badminton
Long after learning mathematics in school, as adults we can make budgets with ease
Based on the physics which we learnt as children we can adjust the consumption of
electricity in our homes
When we see a visually challenged person trying to cross the road, we immediately go to
help him
The above examples clearly indicate that ever since our birth we have been continually
learning new skills, gaining fresh information and developing beliefs and attitudes
We were unable to perform most of our present behaviour when were in developmental
stages
Have learnt these behaviors en route to growth and they have now become a part of our
conduct Dr. Sonia Shali 45
• The child learns from his family, neighborhood, teachers, peers, etc.
• Learning continues under formal as well as informal conditions
• An individual acquires knowledge, beliefs, attitudes skills etc. from his family,
school, community and society at large and develops into a unique self. All
these learnt behaviors become a part of our personality
• We are not only acculturated and socialized but we also become capable of
enriching our culture ( Sociological context)
• Learning is a complex mix of intelligence, motivation, psychological factors and
even brain chemistry. Its processes and consequences can be as simple as
touching a hot store and 'learning' not to touch it again, or as complex as
struggling to understand the basic principles of the theory of relativity and its
application to the space technology programme ( Psychological context)
• Learning is a process of continual adaptation to the environment and
assimilation and accommodation of new information and knowledge to fit in
with pre-existing knowledge structures ( Environmental/Biological Context)46
Dr. Sonia Shali
 Definition of Learning

• No single concept defines it, most psychologists and educators approve that learning is
a process by which behavior is either modified or changed through experience or
training
• Learning is relatively permanent change in response potentiality which occurs as a
function of reinforced practice
• This definition also allows the inclusion of the phenomenon of latent learning and
incidental learning, in which changes are not immediately observable and reflects the
truism that learning is really a hypothetical construct recognizable solely through
measurable changes in behavior i.e. performance.
• Learning may also be understood as fundamentally an active process which allows the
individual to interact with the environment and gain enrichment of experience
• It can also be defined as improvement in behavior, in that with time we usually
become more proficient at whatever it is that we are learning
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 Learning involves Dimensions of Psychological and Mental Activities

For effective learning to take place, among various psychological factors, motivation and
learning ability are important factors besides psychological factors there are
physiological basis of learning too
 Since organisms participate in activities which ensure learning on an operational basis,
there are many physical planes through which an organism operates
In the physical plane, learning is highly dependent upon the receptors, the
participation of afferent nerves which carry the sense impressions and to the brain and
the entire nervous system which then provides meaning and interpretation. (The afferent
nerves are the messenger neurons that bring the information from different parts of the body to the central
nervous system (CNS)).
Learning also includes motor processes, habits, ideational acquisitions which involve
information and affective elements that are emotional in content
For instance, manual skills which are predominantly motor in character are relatively
simpler to acquire. On the affective side, we have a broad array of acquired likes,
dislikes, biases and prejudices. Dr. Sonia Shali 48
 Types of Learning Types of Behavioural
Learning
1. Cognitive Learning
2. Psychomotor Learning
3. Affective Learning
4. Concomitant Learning (accompanying)
5. Discrimination Learning ( judgement)
6. Principles Learning

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 Behavioural Learning – Three General Categories

Classical Conditioning (Unconscious or Automatic Learning)

• Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an
association is made between a previously neutral response(tone)
a stimulus (Food) that naturally evokes a response.
• For example, in Pavlov's classic experiment, the smell of food was the
naturally occurring stimulus that was paired with the previously neutral
ringing of the bell. Once an association had been made between the two,
the sound of the bell alone could lead to a response.
• Example to understand this concept…… if you don't know how to swim
and were to fall into a pool, you'd take actions to avoid the pool.
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 Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the probability of a response

occurring is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment.
• First studied by Edward Thorndike and later by B.F. Skinner, the underlying idea
behind operant conditioning is that the consequences of our actions shape
voluntary behavior.
• Skinner described how reinforcement could lead to increase in behaviors where
punishment would result in decreases. He also found that the timing of when
reinforcements were delivered influenced how quickly a behavior was learned
and how strong the response would be. The timing and rate of reinforcement are
known as schedules of reinforcement.
• For example, child learn to complete their coursework because we reward them
with treats and/or praise.
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 Observational Learning
Observational learning is a process in
which learning occurs through
observing and imitating others.
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning As demonstrated in classic Bobo Doll
Theory suggests that in addition to experiments, people imitate the actions of others
learning through conditioning, without direct reinforcement. Four important
people also learn through elements are essential for effective observational
observation and imitating the
learning: Attention, Motor Skills, Motivation and
actions of others.
Memory

Example, an teenager's older sibling gets a

speeding ticket, with the unpleasant results of
fines and restrictions. The teenager then learns
not toShali
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 OBSERVATION

Learning from Grandparents

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• During the 1960s, Albert Bandura
conducted a series of experiments
on Observational learning, collectively
known as the Bobo doll experiments.
• Method
• A lab experiment was used, in which
the independent variable (the type of
model) was manipulated in three
conditions:
• Aggressive model is shown to 24
children
• Non-aggressive model is shown to 24
children
• No model shown (control condition) -
24 children
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Stage 1: Modeling
• In the experimental conditions children were individually shown into a room containing toys
and played with some potato prints and pictures in a corner for 10 minutes while either:

• 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) watched a male or female model behaving aggressively
towards a toy called a 'Bobo doll'. The adults attacked the Bobo doll in a distinctive manner -
they used a hammer in some cases, and in others threw the doll in the air and shouted "Pow,
Boom."

• Another 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were exposed to a non-aggressive model who
played in a quiet and subdued manner for 10 minutes (playing with a tinker toy set and
ignoring the bobo-doll).

• The final 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were used as a control group and not exposed to
any model at all.

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Stage 2: Aggression Arousal
• All the children (including the control group) were subjected to 'mild
aggression arousal.' Each child was (separately) taken to a room with
relatively attractive toys.

• As soon as the child started to play with the toys, the experimenter told the
child that these were the experimenter's very best toys and she had decided
to reserve them for the other children.

The Dark Side of Science: The Bobo Doll Experiment 1963 (Short Documentary)
https://youtu.be/54tK1GWrQsg

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Stage 3: Test for Delayed Imitation
• The next room contained some aggressive toys and some non-aggressive toys.
The non-aggressive toys included a tea set, crayons, three bears and plastic
farm animals. The aggressive toys included a mallet and peg board, dart guns,
and a 3 foot Bobo doll.

• The child was in the room for 20 minutes, and their behaviour was observed
and rated though a one-way mirror. Observations were made at 5-second
intervals, therefore, giving 240 response units for each child.

• Other behaviours that didn’t imitate that of the model were also recorded e.g.,
punching the Bobo doll on the nose.

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 Historical Perspective

• One of the first thinkers to study how learning influences behaviour was psychologist John
B. Watson, who suggested in his seminal 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views
It that all behaviours are a result of the learning process.
• Psychology, the behaviourists believed, should be the scientific study of observable,
measurable behaviour.
• Behaviorism dominated psychology for much of the early 20th century. Although behavioral
approaches remain important today, the latter part of the century was marked by the
emergence of humanistic psychology, Biological Psychology, and Cognitive Psychology.
• Other important figures in the psychology of learning include:
• Edward Thorndike
• Ivan Pavlov
• B.F. Skinner
• Albert Bandura
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1. Motor Learning: Our day to day activities like walking, running,
driving, etc., must be learnt for ensuring a good life. These activities
to a great extent involve muscular coordination.
2. Verbal Learning: It is related with the language which we use to
communicate and various other forms of verbal communication
such as symbols, words, languages, sounds, figures and signs.
3. Concept Learning: This form of learning is associated with higher
order cognitive processes like intelligence, thinking, reasoning, etc,
which we learn right from our childhood. Concept learning involves
the processes of abstraction and generalization, which is very useful
for identifying or recognizing things.
4. Discrimination Learning: Learning which distinguishes between
various stimuli with its appropriate and different responses is
regarded as discrimination stimuli.
5. Learning of Principles: Learning which is based on principles helps
in managing the work most effectively. Principles based learning
explains the relationship between various concepts.
6. Attitude Learning: Attitude shapes our behaviour to a very great
extent, as our positive or negative behaviour is based on our
attitudinal predisposition.

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 Memory and Forgetting : Psychological Context

• Memory is a psychological process that goes beyond

remembering important information
• Like any senses, including the sense of consciousness, is a
• conceptual process that is influenced by our beliefs, anticipations, expectations and fears
• In psychology, defined as the possibility by which behaviors are adapted to human
experiences
• Can be clearly defined as a cognitive mental process that stores and saves information,
experiences and different situations experienced by man and learns
• The memory function restores the required information after a long or short period of time
• Memory is essential to all our lives because without a memory of the past, we cannot
operate in the present or think about the future. We would not be able to remember what
we did yesterday, what we have done today or what we plan to do tomorrow.  Without
memory, we could not learn anything.
• Is important to note that the concept of memory is more meaningful than the concept of
remembering.
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Storeroom as an Analogy

We can understand how the human

brain stores information by using a simple
analogy. Our brain is like a storeroom
when we consider memory storage. Like in
a store you want to keep the important things on the shelf because in that
way they will become easily accessible. Similarly, our brain keeps important
things on the surface levels of memory storage. You pay attention to the
things that you like, that is why subjects of your interest are easier for you
to remember as compared to the things which you do not like.

Dr. Sonia Shali 63

  Information comes to our
memory system for sensory
output

 The information is changed into

a form that the system can cope
with

 Example – a word seen in a

book may be stored in our
memory if it is changed
(encoded) into a sound or
meaning (semantic process)
Dr. Sonia Shali 64
Name these species
Dr. Sonia Shali 65
 Our memory system works in three separate processes:

Memory Encoding
When information comes into our memory system (from sensory
input), it needs to be changed into a form that the system can
cope with, so that it can be stored.

Think of this as similar to changing your money into a different

currency when you travel from one country to another. For
example, a word which is seen (in a book) may be stored if it is
changed (encoded) into a sound or a meaning (i.e. semantic
processing).

There are three main ways in which information can be encoded

(changed):

1. Visual (picture)
2. Acoustic (sound)
3. Semantic (meaning)
Dr. Sonia Shali 66
• For example, how do you remember a or a word telephone 100
number you have looked up in the book? If you can see it then
you are using visual coding, but if you are repeating it to yourself
you are using acoustic coding (by sound).

• Evidence suggests that this is the principle coding system in

short-term memory (STM) is acoustic coding. When a person is
presented with a list of numbers and letters, they will try to hold
them in STM by rehearsing them (verbally).

• Rehearsal is a verbal process regardless of whether the list of

items is presented acoustically (someone reads them out), or
visually (on a sheet of paper).

• The principle encoding system in long-term memory (LTM)

appears to be semantic coding (by meaning). Information in LTM
can also be coded both visually and acoustically.
Dr. Sonia Shali 67
2. Memory Storage
• This concerns the nature of memory stores, i.e., where the information is
stored, how long the memory lasts for (duration), how much can be stored
at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is held.
• The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it.  There has
been a significant amount of research regarding the differences
between Short Term Memory (STM ) and Long Term Memory (LTM).
• Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory. 
(Miller (1956) experiment put this idea forward and he called it the magic
number 7.  He though that short-term memory capacity was 7 (plus or
minus 2) items because it only had a certain number of “slots” in which
items could be stored). 
• Miller didn’t specify the amount of information that can be held in each
slot.  Indeed, if we can “chunk” information together we can store a lot
more information in our short-term memory.  In contrast, the capacity of
LTM is thought to be unlimited.

• Information can only be stored for a brief duration in STM (0-30 seconds),
but LTM can last a lifetime. Dr. Sonia Shali 68
 3. Memory Retrieval

• This refers to getting information out of storage.  If we can’t remember something, it may
be because we are unable to retrieve it.  When we are asked to retrieve something from
memory, the differences between STM and LTM become very clear.
• STM is stored and retrieved sequentially.  For example, if a group of participants are
given a list of words to remember, and then asked to recall the fourth word on the list,
participants go through the list in the order they heard it in order to retrieve the
information.

• LTM is stored and retrieved by association.  This is why you can remember what you
went upstairs for if you go back to the room where you first thought about it.

• Organizing information can help aid retrieval.  You can organize information in sequences
(such as alphabetically, by size or by time).  Imagine a patient being discharged from
hospital whose treatment involved taking various pills at various times, changing their
dressing and doing exercises. 
Dr. Sonia Shali 69
Anatomy of Human Memory Storage
• The parts of the brain which serve as information
processors to create memories and store them include
the Prefrontal cortex, Neocortex, Basal ganglia,
Cerebellum, Hippocampus, and Amygdala. These
different parts of the brain have different functions
associated with various types of memories.

Prefrontal cortex
Prefrontal Cortex
• This part of the brain serves its purposes as a store for
short-term memory. The prefrontal cortex consists of
two functional sides the left and right. Both of the
sides collectively serve short-term working memory.

Dr. Sonia Shali 70

Neocortex
• This is part of the brain serves as an
information processor. This is the
part of the cerebral cortex which is
involved in reasoning and learning.
• It is said that neocortex extracts
information from the explicit
( Clear) memories stored in the
hippocampus to create reasoning
and logic.

Dr. Sonia Shali 71

Basal Ganglia
• These are present deep within the
brain which keeps the memories
that are implicit ( hidden) and
provide automatic or involuntary
learning from the information
provided to the brain in the past.

Dr. Sonia Shali 72

Amygdala
• This is located on the temporal lobe; this is
one of the most important parts of the
brain which serve for the memory
function.
• Amygdala is known to create sentimental
and emotional responses which are then
linked to the memories. This helps in the
creation of long-term episodic memories.

Dr. Sonia Shali 73

Hippocampus - The Seahorse In Your
Brain
• The temporal lobe of the brain holds this small
structure which holds an enormous list of
function. This is crucial for the creation of
long-term memories. It acts just like a catalyst
for long-term episodic memories.
• Hippocampus is also essential for short-term
memory storage. If the hippocampus gets
damaged or surgically removed, like the famous
case of Henry Molaison, the brain becomes
incapable of forming new memories and store
them.

Dr. Sonia Shali 74

 Forgetting
• From misremembering the names of our acquaintances, to failing to
recall a memory accurately, for decades we have viewed forgetfulness
as a shortcoming of the human mind.
• From creativity to intelligence and empathy to courage, the art of
forgetting may be more vital to the human condition than
remembering.
• Memory and forgetting work in unison. We depend on our memory
to record, to learn and to recall and we depend on forgetting to
countervail, to sculpt and to squeeze our memories. This balancing
act is vital for our cognitive functioning, creativity and mental health.
• New insights into neurology, computer science, psychology and even
philosophy illustrate how normal forgetting is indeed beneficial.
• Memory needs to be counterbalanced by forgetting in order to
successfully live in a world that is not only flourishing and buzzing
with information, but also with information that occasionally stings.

Dr. Sonia Shali 75

• By freeing our minds, forgetting liberates us from the drag of memories that
moors us in unnecessary details, that imprisons us in pain and in looping
obsessions.
• Forgetting, is not a trouble, not a failure, but rather nature’s gift that allows us
to be smarter, better and happier people.

Why do we forget?  Secondly, do we really ever truly

forget? There are two simple answers to this question. 
1. The memory has disappeared - it is no longer available. 
2. The memory is still stored in the memory system but, for some reason, it
cannot be retrieved.
• Forgetting information from short term memory (STM) can be explained using
the theories of Trace Decay and Displacement.
• Forgetting from long term memory (LTM) can be explained using the Theories of
interference, Retrieval failure and Lack ofShaliConsolidation.
Dr. Sonia 76
There are two types of forgetting…….
1. Natural Forgetting
2. Artificial Forgetting
• Natural or passive forgetting - is unknown and happens over time. It is quite
normal for people to forget what was previously experienced. Painful
memories push into the unconscious layers of the brain and go there to
forget.
• Artificial forgetting - is the tendency of artificial neural networks to
completely and abruptly forget about the information previously learned on
learning new artificial information.
1. Psychological amnesia: 2. Biological amnesia:
Childhood Amnesia Retrograde Amnesia
Defensive Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia
Dream Amnesia Dr. Sonia Shali Infantile Amnesia 77
The Psychology of Forgetting and Why Memory Fails
This explanation of forgetting in short term
memory assumes that memories leave a trace in
the brain. A trace is some form of physical
Trace Decay Theory and/or chemical change in the nervous system. 
Trace decay theory states that forgetting occurs
of Forgetting as a result of the automatic decay or fading of
the memory trace. Trace decay theory focuses
on time and the limited duration of short term
memory.
This theory suggests short term memory can
only hold information for between 15 and 30
seconds unless it is rehearsed.  After this time
the information / trace decays and fades away.

Dr. Sonia Shali 78

 Displacement

There is only limited number of

slots in STM – if new information
is taken in then an old information
is knocked out (displaced)

This is a STM theory of Forgetting

Dr. Sonia Shali 79

 Interference Theory

If you had asked psychologists during the 1930s, 1940s, or 1950s what caused
forgetting you would probably have received the answer "Interference". 

It was assumed that memory can be disrupted or interfered with by what we

have previously learned or by what we will learn in the future.  This idea
suggests that information in long term memory may become confused or
combined with other information during encoding thus distorting or disrupting
memories.
Dr. Sonia Shali 80
1. Proactive interference (pro=forward) occurs when you cannot learn a new
task because of an old task that had been learnt.  When what we already
know interferes with what we are currently learning – where old memories
disrupt new memories.

2. Retroactive interference (retro=backward) occurs when you forget a

previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task. In other words,
later learning interferes with earlier learning - where new memories disrupt
old memories.
• Proactive and retroactive Interference is thought to be more likely to occur
where the memories are similar, for example: confusing old and new
telephone numbers. The students who study similar subjects at the same time
often experience interference.

Dr. Sonia Shali 81

 Retrieval Failure Theory

• Retrieval failure is where the information is in long term memory, but

cannot be accessed.  Such information is said to be available (i.e. it is still
stored) but not accessible (i.e. it cannot be retrieved). It cannot be accessed
because the retrieval clues are not present. 
• When we store a new memory we also store information about the situation
and these are known as retrieval cues.  When we come into the same
situation again, these retrieval clues can trigger the memory of the situation.
Retrieval cues can be:
External / Context - in the environment, e.g. smell, place etc.
Internal / State- inside of us, e.g. physical, emotional, mood, drunk etc.
Dr. Sonia Shali 82
 Lack of Consolidation

• The preceding interpretations of forgetting have focused primarily on

psychological evidence, but memory also relies on biological processes. For
example, we can define a memory trace as:
Some permanent alteration of the brain substrate in order to represent some
aspect of a past experience’.
When we take in new information, a certain amount of time is necessary for
changes to the nervous system to take place – the consolidation process – so
that it is properly recorded. During this period information is moved from short
term memory to the more permanent long term memory.

Dr. Sonia Shali 83

Task

• Read about these theories, their studies and evaluative comments

and in detail.

• Make notes in your notebook.

Dr. Sonia Shali 84

 Motivation and Attitudes
• Motivation plays a significant role in the process of learning a language
• Language educators cannot effectively demonstrate a language if they do
not understand the relationship between motivation and its effect on
language acquisition
• The core of motivation is what might be called passion, which relates to a person's intrinsic goals and
desires
• Successful learners know their preferences, their strengths and weaknesses and effectively utilize strengths
and compensate for weaknesses
• Successful language learning is linked to the learner’s passion and instructors find ways to connect to this
passion
• Learners need quality instruction, input, interaction and opportunities for meaningful output, not only to
make progress
• Need to select the sources of intrinsic motivation and find ways to connect them with external motivational
factors that can be brought to a teaching space
• It is important for instructors to identify students' purposes and needs and to develop proper motivational
strategies
• Motivation fluctuates and is challenging at a high level all the time, while designing a course, educators take
into consideration that each learner has differentDr.interests
Sonia Shali and expectations 85
 Psychological Perspective

• Motivation is driving force behind human actions, goal setting

• Is the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented
behaviours
• Helps us remain positive, pushes us to get advancement, causes to act
in a way that gets us closer to our goals
• In daily practice, the term "motivation" is frequently used to describe why a person does
something
• Motivation includes the Biological, Emotional, Social and Cognitive forces that activate
human behaviour
• Involves factors that direct and maintain goal-directed actions
• Although, such motives are rarely directly observable
• As a result, we often infer the reasons why people do the things that they do based on
observable behaviours Dr. Sonia Shali 86
 Types of Motivation

• The two main types of motivation are frequently described as

being either extrinsic or intrinsic.
• Extrinsic motivation arises from outside of the individual and
often involves external rewards such as trophies, money, social
recognition or praise.
• Intrinsic motivation is internal and arises from within the
individual, such as undertaking a complicated task/ crossword
purely for the fulfilment of solving a problem
• The third type of motivation is Addiction, which is unhealthy and
toxic. In this case, the rewards of an activity fade off and you're
left only with the reinforcement.

Dr. Sonia Shali 87

• The last type of motivation should not be encouraged, the first two are how most
educators and leaders can encourage people to participate
• Also depends upon how we can incorporate Extrinsic and Intrinsic motivations into your
learning strategy?
Why Motivation Is Important
Motivation serves as a guiding force for all human behavior. So, understanding how
motivation works and the factors that may impact it can be important for several reasons.
Understanding motivation can:
1. Increase your efficiency as you work toward your goals
2. Drive you to take action
3. Encourage you to engage in health-oriented behaviors
4. Help you avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviours, such as risk-taking and addiction
5. Help you feel more in control of your life
6. Improve your overall well-being and happiness
Dr. Sonia Shali 88
 Components of Motivation
• These different elements or components are needed to get and stay motivated.
Researchers have identified three major components of motivation
1. Activation is the decision to initiate a behaviour. An example of activation would
be enrolling in Forensic Sciences courses in order to earn your degree.
2. Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may
exist. An example of persistence would be showing up for your Forensic class even
though you are tired from staying up late the night before.
3. Intensity is the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For
example, one student learning without much effort (minimal intensity) while
another student studying regularly, participating in discussions and takes
advantage of research opportunities outside of class (greater intensity).

Dr. Sonia Shali 89

 Tips for Improving Your Motivation

• All people experience fluctuations in their motivation and willpower to reach goals

• If you feel low on motivation, taking few steps can help increase your drive. Some things you can
do to develop or improve your motivation include:
1. Adjust your goals to focus on things that really matter to you. Focusing on things that are highly
important to you will help push you through your challenges more than goals based on things
that are low in importance
2. If you're tackling something that feels too big or too overwhelming, break it up into smaller,
more manageable steps
3. Improve your confidence because research suggests that there is a connection between
confidence and motivation. Gaining more confidence in yourself and your skills can impact your
ability to achieve your goals
4. Remind yourself about what you've achieved in the past and where your strengths lie. This
helps keep self-doubts from limiting your motivation
5. If there are things you feel insecure about, try working on making improvements in those areas
so you feel more skilled and capable Dr. Sonia Shali 90
1. Surround yourself with positive people

2. Use Incentives Carefully

3. Introduce Challenges

4. Don’t Visualize Success

5. Take Control

6. Focus on the Journey, Not the Outcome

Dr. Sonia Shali 91
 Causes of Low Motivation

• All-or-nothing thinking
• Believing in quick fixes
• Thinking that one size fits all

Dr. Sonia Shali 92

 Theories of Motivation

1. Instincts
• The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated
by instincts, which are fixed and inborn patterns of behaviour. 
• Psychologists such as William James, Sigmund Freud, and William
McDougal have proposed several basic human drives that motivate
behaviour.
• They include biological instincts that are important for an organism's
survival—such as fear, cleanliness and love.

Dr. Sonia Shali 93

 2. Drives and Needs

• Many behaviors such as eating, drinking, and

sleeping are motivated by biology
• We have a biological need for food, water, and
sleep, are motivated to eat, drink, and sleep
• The drive reduction theory of motivation suggests
that people have these basic biological drives and
our behaviours are motivated by the need to fulfill
these drives
• Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is another
motivation theory based on a desire to fulfill basic
physiological needs
• Once those needs are fulfilled, it expands to our
other needs, such as those related to safety and
security, social needs, self-esteem and self-
actualization
Dr. Sonia Shali 94
 3. Arousal Levels
• The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to
engage in behaviors that help them maintain their optimal level of
arousal.
•  A person with low arousal needs might pursue relaxing activities such as
reading a book, while those with high arousal needs might be motivated to
engage in exciting, thrill-seeking behaviours such as motorcycle racing/
driving, hiking.

• Psychologists have proposed many different theories of motivation. The

reality is that there are numerous different forces that guide and direct our
motivations.
Dr. Sonia Shali 95
 Attitude in Psychology
Definition, Formation, Changes

• In psychology, an attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs and behaviors toward a

particular object, person, thing, or event
• Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing
• They can have a powerful influence over behaviour and affect how we act in various
situations. While attitudes are enduring, they can also change
Overview of Attitude
• Our opinion on the death penalty
• Our opinion about which political party does a better job of running the country
• Whether prayer be allowed in institutions
• Whether violence on television/social media platforms/films be regulated
• Parental controls and privacy settings Dr. Sonia Shali 96
 Psychological perspective

• Psychologists define attitudes as a learned tendency to evaluate things in a

certain way. This can include evaluations of people, issues, objects, or events.
Such evaluations are often positive or negative, but they can also be uncertain
at times.
• For example, you might have mixed feelings about a particular person or
issue. Researchers also suggest that there are several different characteristics
that make up attitudes.
Components of Attitude
1. Cognitive Component: Your thoughts and beliefs about the subject
2. Affective Component: How the object, person, issue, or event makes you
feel
3. Behavioural Component: How attitude Dr. Sonia Shali influences your behaviour 97
 Attitude Formation Factors Influencing
Attitude Strength

1. Experience 1. Are an expert on the subject

2. Social Factors 2. Expect a favorable outcome
3. Learning 3. Experience something personally
4. Stand to win or lose something due
4. Conditioning to the issue
5. Observation 5. Are repeatedly expressed attitudes

Dr. Sonia Shali 98

 Values of Emotions

• Emotions are influenced by a network of interconnected structures in the

brain that make up what is known as the limbic system.
• Key structures including the Hypothalamus, the Hippocampus, the
Amygdala, and the Limbic cortex play a fundamental role in emotions and
behavioral responses.
The Three Components of Emotion
• There are three critical components of an emotion. Each element can play a
role in the function and purpose of your emotional responses.
1.Subjective component: How you experience the emotion
2.Physiological component: How your body reacts to the emotion
3.Expressive component: How you behave in response to the emotion
Dr. Sonia Shali 99
Reasons WHY…….Emotions Are Important

• Emotions Can Motivate You to Act

• Emotions Help You Avoid Danger
• Emotions Can Help You Make Decisions
• Emotions Help Others Understand You Better
• Emotions Allow You to Understand Others

1. Which part of the brain processes emotions?

2. Why are emotions an important part of decision-making?

Dr. Sonia Shali 100

1. The emotional processing network is the group of brain regions and
structures responsible for processing emotions.
2. Parts of the brain involved in this process include the amygdala, the
hippocampus, the prefrontal cortex and the cingulate cortex.

3. Emotions can help a decision-maker determine which aspects of a

decision are the most relevant to their specific situation.
4. They may also help people make faster decisions.

Dr. Sonia Shali 101

 The Influences of Emotion on Learning and Memory

• Emotions describe a complex set of interactions between subjective and

objective variables that are mediated by neural and hormonal systems,
which can……
 Give rise to affective experiences of emotional valence (pleasure-
displeasure) and emotional arousal (high-low activation/calming-arousing)
Generate cognitive processes such as emotionally relevant perceptual
affect, appraisals, labeling processes
Activate widespread psychological and physiological changes to the
arousing conditions and
Motivate behaviour that is often but not always expressive, goal-directed
and adaptive Dr. Sonia Shali 102
 Behavioural Problems

• Problem behaviours are those that aren’t considered typically acceptable

• Practically, everyone can have a moment of disruptive behaviour or an error in
judgment
• Problem behaviour is a consistent pattern
• Problem behaviours can vary in terms of severity
• Can occur in children as well as in adults
• People with problem behaviours often require medical intervention to
improve their symptoms

Dr. Sonia Shali 103

 Symptoms of Problem Behaviour

Problem behavior can have many 8. Excessive, disruptive talking

symptoms, including but not limited to: 9. Hoarding useless objects
1. Abuse of alcohol or drugs 10. Inappropriate behavior
2. Agitation 11. Inflated self-esteem or
3. Angry, defiant behaviors overconfidence
12. Obsessive thoughts
4. Carelessness
13. Poor judgment
5. Disinterest or withdrawal from daily life 14. Property damage
6. Drug use 15. Self-injury
7. Emotional uniformity

Dr. Sonia Shali 104

• Problem behavior can range from the absence of emotions to aggressive
emotions.
• According to Sharon Levy – Professor Harvard Medical School (2022), behavior
problems often show themselves in different ways among girls and boys.
• For example, boys with problem behavior may fight, steal, or deface property.
Girls with problem behavior may lie or run away from home. Both are at
greater risk for drug and alcohol abuse.
• https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/problems-in-adolesc
ents/behavior-problems-in-adolescents?redirectid=375?ruleredirectid=30

Dr. Sonia Shali 105

 Causes - Problem Behaviour
• Common conditions related to problem behaviour include……………….
1. Anxiety disorder
2. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
3. Bipolar disorder
4. Conduct disorder
5. Delirium
6. Dementia
7. Depression
8. Obsessive-compulsive disorder OCD
9. Oppositional defiant disorder- are uncooperative, defiant and hostile toward peers, parents, teachers and other authority figures
10. Postpartum depression
11. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
12. Psychosis/ Phobia
13. Schizophrenia
14. Substance abuse Dr. Sonia Shali 106
 Risk Factors

• People with chronic and mental health conditions are at greater risk for
problem behavior than those who don’t have these conditions.
1. Anti-social disorder
2. ADHD
3. Mood disorder
4. Schizophrenia
5. Substance abuse

Dr. Sonia Shali 107

 Problem Behaviour - Treatment

Doctors treat problem behavior by diagnosing its causes. People who are at
risk for harming themselves may require an inpatient stay at a hospital for their
personal safety.
1. Additional treatments for problem behavior can include:
2. Conflict resolution classes
3. Counseling
4. Group therapy
5. Medications
6. Parenting skills classes

Dr. Sonia Shali 108

 Behaviour Problems in Adolescents

Specific Behavioural Disorders

1. Violence and Media Exposure – violence shown on different social media platforms
2. Less Authoritative parenting in contemporary times
3. Substance use disorders are a common trigger of behavioural problems
4. ADHD is the most common mental health disorder
5. Oppositional defiant disorder and Conduct disorder
6. Developmental problems
7. Gang membership
8. Access to weapons
9. Poverty
10. Genetic defects or chromosomal abnormalities
Dr. Sonia Shali 109
Conflict and Use of Defense Mechanisms

• The word conflict has been derived from Latin that means
• ‘strike two things at the same time’.
• Conflict is a disagreement or a tug-of-war between contradictory impulses.
A conflict is the anticipated frustration entailed in the choice of either
alternative’. Conflicts occur in the individual when more than one, equally
powerful desires or motives present at the same time and pressurize for
immediate satisfaction.
• If any one of the motive is weak, it will be suppressed and the stronger
motive gains satisfaction. Conflicts give rise to a lot of tension in the
individual, s/he becomes completely disturbed. Tension continues until a
decision is taken and conflict is resolved.
Dr. Sonia Shali 110
 Types of Conflicts

There are different types of conflicts mainly common are…….

A. Intrapersonal or Goal conflicts
B. Interpersonal conflicts

Intrapersonal conflicts - conflicts caused within the individual, arise as a result of two
or more motives or goals to be achieved at a time. These are called Goal conflicts.
1. Approach-approach conflict - individual will have two desires with positive valence
which are equally powerful.
2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict - involves two goals with negative valence.
3. Approach-avoidance conflict - most complex conflict and very difficult to resolve.
4. Multiple-approach-avoidance conflict - Some of the situations in life we come across
will involve both positive and negative valences of multiple nature.
Dr. Sonia Shali 111
 Resolution of Conflicts

• The conflicts arise from frustrations, competing roles or goals having positive
or negative valences. Some conflicts are of great danger to mental health of
the individual, necessary to resolve them as quickly as possible.
• They may be carried on to the unconscious level, resulting in psychological
problems and psychosomatic disorders. The clash between the urges,
desires and motives may go on without being fully aware of it. These forces
may disturb the individual causing lot of mental turmoil.
• Conflicts resolution depends upon the type of conflict. The double approach
conflict may be easily resolved by satisfying first one goal which is more
important than the other; for instance, a student attending the class first,
then going for food even if hungry.
Dr. Sonia Shali 112
 Interpersonal Conflicts

• Interpersonal conflict is caused between

individuals. This can be resolved through
some strategies such as avoiding,
levelling, forcing, confronting and
compromising.
• Assertive behaviour - I am ok, you are ok
interpersonal orientation helps to resolve
such conflicts easily.

Dr. Sonia Shali 113

 Unconscious Conflict

• The mental conflict below the level of conscious awareness is called

unconscious conflict.
• The conflicts in conscious level, when repressed, shifts to unconscious. Here
the desires which cannot be satisfied at conscious level are repressed to
unconscious level as a mechanism of escaping.
• Many of our wants raised by Id may not be socially acceptable. Such wants are
objected by the Ego and the Super ego. Hence these are suppressed to
unconscious.

Dr. Sonia Shali 114

 Use of Defense Mechanisms

• Coping with difficult /dangerous situations/feeling

• Defense mechanisms refer to psychological strategies or behaviours that
people may use to cope with difficult feelings, thoughts, or events.
• Defense mechanisms are behaviours that people use to separate themselves
from unpleasant events, actions or thoughts.
• The idea of defense mechanisms comes from psychoanalytic theory, a
psychological perspective of personality that sees personality as the
interaction between three components: Id, Ego, and Super-ego. These
psychological strategies help people put distance between themselves and
threats or unwanted feelings, such as guilt or shame.
Dr. Sonia Shali 115
• First proposed by Sigmund Freud, this concept has evolved over time and
contends that behaviours, like defense mechanisms, are not under a person’s
conscious control. In fact, most people do them without realizing it.
• As per the theoretical construct, defense mechanisms are a natural part of
psychological development. Identifying which type you, your loved ones, and
even your co-workers use may help you in upcoming conversations and
encounters.

• Sigmund Freud, known as the father of psychoanalysis, began the discussion of defense

mechanisms in the nineteenth century in relation to the subconscious defenses of the id, ego,
and superego. These initial defense mechanisms were more clearly defined and
analyzed by his daughter, Anna Freud, in the twentieth century. She created 10 major
defense mechanisms, but the number of mechanisms has since been increased by later
psychoanalysts.

Dr. Sonia Shali 116

 How do Defense Mechanisms work?

• Defense mechanisms are ways you react to situations that bring up negative emotions.
• According to psychoanalytic theory, when you experience a stressor, the subconscious
will first monitor the situation to see if it might harm you. If the subconscious believes
the situation might lead to emotional harm, it may react with a defense mechanism to
protect you.
• Usually, you are unaware of the defense mechanism, though the behaviour may
appear odd to others around you.
• In the long term, mature defense mechanisms may not be particularly detrimental to
your emotional or mental health. Using more mature mechanisms may help you face the
anxieties and situations that might normally cause stress and emotional pressure.
• Other defense mechanisms, some are not as mature and helpful. Prolonged use of these
defenses can lead to persistent problems. In fact, they may prevent you from ever facing
emotional issues or anxieties because they block you from seeing the root cause.
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Some signs that defense mechanisms are getting in the
way of your everyday life and mental health may include:

• Feeling sad or depressed

• Having difficulty getting out of bed
• Avoiding usual daily activities, things, or people that once
made you happy
• Having difficulty forming or maintaining healthy
relationships
• Communication problems that obstruct your professional
or personal life
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Top 10 most common Defense Mechanisms

1. Denial -occurs when you refuse to accept reality or facts

2. Repression - Unsavory thoughts, painful memories, or irrational beliefs can upset you.
3. Projection - Some thoughts or feelings you have about another person may make you uncomfortable.
4. Displacement -You direct strong emotions and frustrations toward a person or object that doesn’t feel
threatening.
5. Regression - Some people who feel threatened or anxious may unconsciously “escape” to an earlier
stage of development.
6. Rationalization - Some people may attempt to explain undesirable behaviors with their own set of
“facts.” 
7. Sublimation - This type of defense mechanism is considered a mature, positive strategy. 
8. Reaction formation - People who use this defense mechanism recognize how they feel, but they choose
to behave in the opposite manner of their instincts.
9. Compartmentalization - Separating your life into independent sectors may feel like a way to protect
many elements of it.
10.Intellectualization - When you’re hit with a trying situation, you may choose to remove all emotion
from your responses and instead focus on quantitative facts.
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 Treatment for Unhealthy Defense Mechanisms

• Defense mechanisms can sometimes be viewed as a type of self-deception. You might be

using them to hide emotional responses that you don’t want to deal with from yourself.
• We can transform unhealthy defense mechanisms into ones that are more sustainable.
These techniques may help:
1. Find accountability. Friends and family members can help you recognize defense
mechanisms you may be using. By drawing attention to the self-deception, they can
help you identify the moment you unconsciously use self-deception. That allows you to
then decide in the conscious state what you really want to do.
2. Learn coping strategies. Therapy with a mental health expert, such as a
psychotherapist, psychologist or psychoanalyst, may help you recognize the defense
mechanisms you use most often. They can then help you learn active responses to
make choices on a more mindful level.
3. Seek mental health therapy. Psychoanalytic therapy can help you uncover your
unconscious defense mechanisms and find better, healthier ways of coping with anxiety
and distress. Dr. Sonia Shali 120
Dr. Sonia Shali 121
10 Other Common Defense Mechanisms

1. Acting out
2. Aim inhibition
3. Altruism
4. Avoidance
5. Compensation
6. Dissociation
7. Fantasy
8. Humour
9. Passive-aggression
10. Undoing
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 Psychology of Criminal Behaviour

• Criminal Psychology - also referred to as Criminological Psychology, a field involving an

combination of Psychology, Criminology, and the Law.
• Discipline was conceived in the mid-twentieth century, when psychologists began offering
expert perspectives on criminal behaviour and speculate about the possible causes that
pushes one to commit such violent acts.
• Criminal psychology, studies Criminal’s behaviour, where term behaviour includes
Personality, Attitude, Physiology, Learning, Motivation, Thinking and other cognitive
Factors which contribute to the act of crime or criminal intentions. It is important to
understand the psychology of criminals as it enables us to describe, explain, predict and
control such behaviour.

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 Criminal psychology has emerged from the major branches
of Psychology:
1. Social Psychology
2. Clinical Psychology
Social Psychology: It is an important and specialized field of Psychology which is
helpful in understanding criminal behaviour and related aspects is Social
Psychology.
Social Psychology is the study of Behaviour in groups. It enables us to understand
how people behave in presence of others, how views, actions of other individuals
mold the perception and cognition of others present.
Social Psychology studies important aspects such as Competition, Collaborative
behaviour, mob behaviour, Leadership, group Behaviour, internal and external
factors affecting group behaviour, etc. This enables us to understand, explain
control and predict behaviour in social situations.
Most of the crime is not always due to Clinical disorders; majority of crime is a
result of deep planning which is a result of social issues, pressure and other
environmental Factors.

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• Clinical Psychology- enables us to understand the Mental, physiological,
emotional and behavioural contributors of criminal behaviour.
• Mental health is a significant predictor of criminal behaviour. While, we define
mental health in a layman term as “an individual who looks healthy”.
• Mental health is described in a much holistic manner. It includes Physical,
Social, and Psychological health of an individual. That is, an individual is
considered to be healthy when he is physically fit, is able to interact with
people, is able to maintain healthy social and family relations, and is
psychologically also fit.

Dr. Sonia Shali 125

 Psychology & Crime

• Psychology and Crime of course are two different terms and fields but each one
of them is important and interdependent. Psychology is the scientific study of
Behaviour, which also includes criminal acts and behaviour.
• Various school of thoughts of Psychology enable and foster the understanding
of behaviours. Following are the school of thoughts in psychology:
1. Psychoanalysis
2. Behaviourism
3. Humanistic

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• Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud is considered as the father of Psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis explains Personality organization and Personality development
of an individual. Through Psychoanalysis root cause of a behavior can be
understood. According to this approach behavioural issues are a result of
unconscious desires, issues of fixation during the stages of Psychosexual
development, and disturbance in functioning of the basic elements of
personality (Id, ego and Superego). These issues lead to the use of defense
mechanisms. Personality as described in Psychoanalysis consists of three
elements id, ego and Superego. Id is based on pleasure principle and seeks
gratification of needs (these needs are largely instinctual in nature). Id does
not takes into account the consequences of Behavior. Superego is based on
morality principle. While, Ego is largely guided by reality Principle. Ego seeks
to create a balance between Id and Superego.
Psychoanalysis till date is useful in understanding unconscious desires and conflicts of
humans which lead to irrational behaviours
Dr. Sonia Shali 127
• Behaviourism: Edward Thorndike and John B. Watson are the pioneers of Behaviourism.
Further significant contributions were made by B.F Skinner and Ivan Pavlov.
Behaviourism is a systematic approach which rejects the idea of psychoanalysis and
believes that behaviour is a result of Stimulus which leads to a particular response (S-R).
Behaviourism resulted in understanding of voluntary behaviour, and behaviour
conditioning. It seeks to explain behaviour as stimulus and response relation and focuses
on observable behaviour and rejects the idea of unconsciousness. Major focus is also
laid on the effect of environment on behaviour of an individual.
Majority of experiments in Behaviourism were conducted on animals like Dogs, Cats, rats
and also birds as the basic notion was to understand a response to a stimulus.
Though Behaviourism leads and guides to an objective measurement of behaviour and a
much scientific reasoning of behaviour but it still faced criticisms as it ignored the
individual level variables completely. It laid to much focus on objective behaviour and left
little scope for free will. Thus, it was majorly criticized as it compared animal behaviour
to human behaviour. Despite all criticism Behaviourism enables Psychologists till date to
give a clear prediction of behaviour and it guides major Behaviour modification
interventions used in therapy.
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• Humanistic: Carl Rogers in this approach emphasized on a whole person
approach to understand behaviour.
Humanistic approach views individual behaviour from subjective perspective,
and not as stimulus response. Theorists emphasize on free will of humans and
have discussed the optimism of humans to overcome the impediments of daily
life and emerge as fully functioning individuals. This approach emphasizes on
scientific and objective investigation of behaviour.
 It rejects the scientific and measurement oriented approach to study
behaviour and views behaviour as human journey.

Suggested Books:
 Siegel, Criminology: The Core, 4th Edition
 Douglas, Burgess, Burgess, Ressler, The Crime Classification Manual, Wiley, 3rd Edition
 Bartol, Bartol, Introduction to Forensic Psychology, Sage Publications, 3rd Edition
Dr. Sonia Shali 129
 Purpose of Criminal Psychology

• Purpose of Criminal Psychology is to understand criminal Behaviour and to be able to

control and modify such behaviour.
• Are required to assist police and legal authorities during investigation of a case by
developing Psychological profile of frequent offenders and investigating reasons as to
what led and resulted such behaviour.
• To understand the offenders and the police personnel dealing with the case, many times,
human errors and limitations restrict or delay the personnel from accessing information
pertaining to the case.
• A criminal Psychologist create instructions and increase the knowledge of investigators to
help them deal with cases of mental illness who are involved in crime.
• Purpose is to research on ways to deal with investigator, offender and victims issues
which arise during the process of case investigation.
• To draw and develop effective interventions to maintain and improve mental health of
professionals and also to provide counseling
Dr. Soniato
Shalioffenders and victims. 130
Investigation challenges in Criminal Psychology

• The challenges that are faced by the criminal psychologists while

interrogating a suspect is that sometimes the suspect tries to be hostile,
distrustful, and uncooperative to save themselves from the criminal charges.
• The suspects become deceitful, cunning and try to save themselves from the
situation.
• Sometimes the biases of the psychologists also affect the interrogation
process.
• The most common approaches adopted by the suspects to deceive the
criminal psychologist –
• The logical and realistic approach 
• A passive and helpless approach  Dr. Sonia Shali 131
 Techniques of Investigation in Criminal Psychology

1. The reverse order

2. Change of perspective
3. Detecting lies and deceitfulness
4. Cognitive interviews..………….
Social dynamics 
Memory and cognition 
Communication
Assessment of statements validity
The use of the content checklist
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