Chance of Hit Theory

Prof James K Varkey

05 Jan 2015
Design for Nuclear, Biological and
Chemical Protection
Revision

 NBC Threat
 Different types of Radiations
 NBC Systems in the Tanks
 Sensors for Nuclear Radiations
 System for Air Filtration
 Anti-nuclear Treatment
 Tank Guns and Ammunition

 Evolution of Conventional Rifled Guns

 Low Pressure Guns
 Smooth Bore Guns
 AP, APCR and APDS Ammunition
 APFSDS Ammunition
 Shaped Charge Ammunition
 High Explosive Ammunition
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
Evolution of Conventional Rifled Guns
 The battle field targets which the tank guns have to engage include
armoured vehicles, weapon emplacements and personnel.
 To enable them to engage these targets guns and rifled machine guns
have been mounted on the tanks.
 Though the characteristics of ground targets facing the tanks have not
changed much, the armoured vehicles have changed considerably and
progressively becoming more difficult targets.
 Earlier the enemy tanks likely to be encountered were few, and were
only armed with machine guns.
 Light tanks armed with machine guns were used in numbers till the
beginning of World War II.
 As the number of such tanks were large, tanks were armed with anti-
tank and anti-personnel weapons.
 Most tank guns ranged in calibre 37 to 47 mm and fired full calibre
armour piercing projectiles with muzzle velocities of 600 to 850m/s.
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
Evolution of Conventional Rifled Guns
 As the armour of the tanks increased in thickness, guns of these types
became inadequate and during WW II larger guns having calibre 50, 57,
75 and 76.2 mm adopted.
 German tanks of 1930s were armed with 75 mm gun with 24 calibre
long fired projectiles with a MV of 420m/s.
 Soviet tanks of the same period (T-28 and T-35) had shorter 16.7
calibre guns of 76.2 mm.
 Till the middle of WW II 75 or 76.2 mm guns together with machine guns
became standard to engage effectively all the principal ground targets.
 As the armour thickness increased, the MV and calibre were became
ineffective. Soviet T-34 tanks increased the calibre to 41.4 calibre of their
76.2 mm gun and US rearmed M3 with increased length of 75 mm gun
to 40 calibre. Germany rearmed 75 mm guns with 48 calibres long.
 To improve the MV, the 75/76.2 mm gun calibres further increased to
58 to achieve MV of 935 m/s. During the second half of WW II guns
with100, 122 128, 150 and 170 mm calibre produced to defeat the
increasing armour thickness.
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
Evolution of Conventional Rifled Guns
 The use of guns of 150 and 170 mm presented a number of problems:
 Large recoil forces which could only be withstood by heavy vehicles.
 The large size of ammunition reduced the number of rounds carried
 Difficulty in handling ammunition by loader because of its weight. The
projectile fired by155 mm gun was weighing 43 kg and their propellant
charge weight was 18 kg.
 From 1950 onwards 120 /122 mm became standard calibre which came
to be considered sufficient to defeat the most heavily armoured tank.
 However heavy tanks with 120/122 mm guns did not become numerically
significant till 1980s. Maximum tanks produced were armed with 100 mm
or 90 mm guns.
 The contemporary tanks are armed with 120/125 mm smooth bore/rifled
guns with MV reaching to 1850 m/s.
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
Low Pressure Guns
 Development of an alternative to conventional rifled gun began in
Germany during the last phase of WW II.
 The first of this series was a 80 mm light, towed smooth bore anti-
tank gun which fired fin stabilized HEAT projectiles wit MV of 520
m/s.
 After the war the idea of a low pressure gun firing fin stabilized
HEAT projectile was taken up by Belgium. It was a 90 mm gun
fitted on wheeled and tracked light vehicle.
 Later France also started development of 90 mm gun. The first 90
mm low pressure guns to be used in quantity was 90 F1 mounted
on AML 90 armoured cars. A similar gun 90 F3 adopted for AMX -
13 light tanks.
 Most of the 90 mm low-pressure guns have been mounted
wheeled armoured vehicles and few in light tanks.
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
Low Pressure Guns
 The relatively low mass of 3.65 to 5 kg projectiles together with
modest MV of 750 to 900 m/s makes it possible to mount on light
vehicles.
 Low pressure guns are not powerful enough to serve as armament
for battle tanks as the armour protection is more effective against
shaped charges. Even larger calibre versions developed by France
(105 mm) mounted on AMX-10 RC reconnaissance vehicle which
fires 5.56.kg HEAT projectile with a MV of 1120 m/s is less
powerful than the guns of battle tanks.
 Large scale production of low-pressure guns has not taken up by
any country.
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
Smooth Bore Guns
Though development of smooth bore tubes for Artillery guns started in
Germany during WW II. The intension was to fire fin stabilized discarding
sabots projectiles at large distance. During 1950s United States started
developing smooth bore guns to fire APFSDS projectiles. Between 1955
and 1959 United States developed two tanks with 90 mm and 105 mm
smooth bore guns.
Development of smooth bore guns started in Soviet Union during 1960s
and used it on T-62 tank with 115 mm smooth bore gun firing APFSDS
projectiles.
Smooth bore guns originally developed had the problem of large dispersion
of APFSDS projectiles.
Meanwhile Germany started developing 105 and 120 mm smooth bore
guns in 1965. Trials carried out between 1965-66 with prototype guns fitted
on Leopard 2 battle tank.
Objections to APFSDS projectile and smooth bore guns came mainly from
Briton
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
Smooth Bore Guns
Briton argued that APFSDS projectiles had grater dispersion and shorter
range compared to APDS projectiles. Later it was proved that penetration
of APDS is inferior to that of APFSDS projectiles, still Briton had gone for
rifled gun.
France, Germany, Italy and Israel also developed 120 mm smooth bore
guns. Soviet Union developed 125 mm smooth bore guns in T-64 and T-72
guns during late 1960s.

Smooth- bore Gun

 Tube weight for a given calibre, shot travel and pressure favours
smooth bore.
 Smooth bore gun will impart 15% more energy to projectile for a given
chamber volume and trunnion reaction than rifled gun firing spin
stabilized projectile. (accounted for rotational acceleration of spin
stabilized projectile).
 Can fire only fin stabilized projectiles.
 Projectiles like HESH are some what less effective in their fin than spin
stabilized form
 Velocity drop, accuracy and consistency beyond 1500m is a limiting
factor in fin stabilized ammunition
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
Smooth Bore Guns
Rifled Gun
 Rifled guns are more versatile as they can fire all types of projectiles,
any spin stabilized projectiles and decoupled (driving slipping band) fin
stabilized projectiles .
 Smooth bore gun will impart 15% more energy to projectile for a given
chamber volume and trunnion reaction than rifled gun firing spin
stabilized projectile. (accounted for rotational acceleration of spin
stabilized projectile).
 Rifled tubes are easier to manufacture because of the high finish
required of the smooth bore to maintain accuracy.
 Life of rifled guns is less than that of smooth bore guns
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
AP, APCR and APDS Ammunition
 Tank guns have relied on kinetic energy of projectiles to defeat
armour of the opposing tanks in most cases.
 Early days these AP projectiles took the form of full calibre, solid, steel
shot fired at velocities that grew from 412 m/s of 57 mm gun to more
than 1500 m/s from 120 mm gun.
 During the first WW itself a more sophisticated armour penetrating
projectiles with high explosive bursting charge wit fuze set to detonate
it after the projectile had pierced the armour of the target. Though the
armour piercing capability of these AP-HE projectile was lower than
that of mono-block AP projectiles, its lethality was better as it exploded
inside the tank.
 By end of second WW, AP and AP-HE projectiles were being fitted
with armour piercing caps, which improved the stress distribution over
noses and thereby reduced their tendency to shatter on impact.
 They were further improved by fitting Ballistic Caps to reduce drag
and were known as Armour Piercing, Caped, Ballistically Capped
projectiles (APCBC)
 Tank Guns and Ammunition

Anti‐Tank Ammunition

Anti-Tank Ammunition

Kinetic Energy Chemical Energy

AP
APCR HEAT
APDS HESH
APFSDS P Charge
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
AP, APCR and APDS Ammunition

 The ability to defeat the increasingly thick armour came from increase in
MV and calibre.
 A Practical limit reached when calibre rose to 120 mm and MV reached
over 1000m/s because larger calibre projectiles and cartridge cases were
too heavy for the loader and the high rate of wear of bore.
 The first alternative KE projectile was Armour Piercing Composite Rigid
(APCR) shot, developed by Germany during second WW. APCR
projectiles consists of a hard, high density, sub-calibre core with in a light
alloy body. So most of the KE imparted to an APCR projectile is
concentrated in the sub-calibre core on a smaller area of the target.
 The sub-calibre cores have been made of tungsten carbide sintered
using cobalt and had very high density
 United States also developed similar projectiles named Hyper Velocity
Armour Piercing (HVAP) for 76 and 90 mm tank guns. Soviet Union
developed 45 to 85 mm APCR projectiles.
 However the brittleness of tungsten carbide penetrators causes them to
fracture when they strike armour obliquely.
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
AP, APCR and APDS Ammunition
 Because the mass of APCR projectiles is nearly half of AP projectiles, they
can be fired at higher velocities up to 1260 m/s, but armour penetration falls
off with range due to light weight.
 Because of above shortcoming further development of APCR abandoned
since 1950 in favour of APDS.
 APDS projectiles have high density, sub-calibre penetrators, but sabots
separate from the projectile bodies after they leave gun. Hence their velocity
and penetration fall off far less with range.
 APDS projectiles came to be widely used since 1950s. The penetrators of
APDS were similar to APCR and the armour penetration was reduced
considerably on slopped armour.
 In 1960s the performance of APDS projectiles was improved further with the
development in Briton which had a penetrator as well as a cap of tungsten
alloy (less hard more ductile).
 It could penetrate 120 mm of armour at 60 degrees at up to 1830 m.
 Performance of APDS projectiles also depends on the mass of sabots, which
absorbed a considerable amount of KE. Efforts were made to minimise the
mass of sabots, still had 21-31% of the total mass of projectile.
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
APFSDS Ammunition
 Development of fin stabilized armour piercing projectiles began in United
States in 1950s and at the same time in Soviet Union also.
 The penetrators used were tungsten carbide and cold achieve MV of 1525
m/s with 90 mm gun which is much more than APDS projectile. With 120
mm gun APFSDS projectile could achieve a MV of 1675 m/s.
 Generally APFSDS projectiles have aluminium alloy sabots of saddle or
spool type, which provide grater length of thread for transfer of forces from
sabot to penetrator, but were heavier.
 Saddle or spool type sabots can guide projectiles with in barrel without yaw.
 At first APFSDS projectiles were associated with smooth bore guns. But
United States successfully used rifled guns to fire APFSDS projectile using
slipping driving bands which they developed earlier for firing HEAT
ammunition. The dispersion of APFSDS projectiles could also reduced to a
level of APDS projectile.
 The first APFSDS projectile to come to service with rifled gun was US 105
mm M735. It has 2.21 kg penetrator with a diameter tapering from 30 mm to
10 mm and L/D ratio of 8:1. Recently developed penetrators have L/D ratio
of 22:1
 APFSDS

17

APFSDS projectile from Soviet 115 and

125mm guns
with its ring-type sabot half-sectioned.
Section through a US XM735E2
APFSDS projectile with a saddle,
or, spool type sabot.

APFSDS at point of
separation of sabot.
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
APFSDS Ammunition
 There has been considerable development of the materials for penetrators.
 Most penetrators developed since 1970s have had penetrators made of
tungsten-nickel-copper alloys
 Recent penetrators are made of tungsten-nickel-iron alloy having better
density.
 United States developed penetrators of depleted uranium which comes as a
waste product on extracting U-235 isotope from natural uranium which is
used in nuclear weapons and thermal plants.
 Because of its density and mechanical properties, penetrators of depleted
uranium can perforate armour more than 10% thicker than that perforated by
comparable tungsten alloy penetrators.
 Uranium obtained from the waste product is alloyed with titanium and the
resulting alloy has a density of 18600 kg/m³ and good mechanical
properties.
 In addition DU has pyrophoric properties, which means that during
penetration of armour particles of the penetrator may ignite causing fire.
 Depleted uranium is less expensive than tungsten alloys.
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
Shaped Charge Ammunition
 Shaped charge works by using the energy available from the
detonation of a charge of high explosive, to collapse and break up a
metal liner into a metallic jet and plug / slug.
 High explosive charge is packed around a conical metal liner
 Base initiation of charge
 Detonating wave moves through explosive towards the apex of the
cone and then moves along it towards its base
 Metal is forced towards a common centre, from where it flows into a
jet
 No change in state of liner, remains solid, but behaves like a liquid
and flows hydro-dynamically
 Tip of jet is formed from the metal at apex of the cone, and jet velocity
8000 ‐9000 m/s
 Increasing mass of metal in contact with detonation wave as the
circumference of cone increases
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
Shaped Charge Ammunition
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
Shaped Charge Ammunition
 The first tank gun with shaped charge projectile was made in
Germany in 1941. Its performance was very poor. The main reason
for the relatively poor armour penetration was that they fired from
rifled gun. Since they spun at high speed for stability, but degraded
effectiveness of the shaped charge.
 Later development of fin stabilized shaped charge started which
gave better performance. To fire fin stabilized projectiles from
conventional rifled guns slipping driving bands were used and was
successful. Also considerable improvement in MV of shaped charge
projectiles achieved (1219 m/s). This velocity was made practicable
by the development of quicker acting fuzes, which ensured that the
shaped charges were detonated rapidly enough after contact with
target.
 Briton did not adopt shaped charge projectiles mainly because they
had doubts about their lethality. As the effectiveness of the armour
piercing projectiles increased with A PFSDS projectiles, HEAT
ammunition became secondary ammunition.
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
High Explosive Ammunition
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
High Explosive Ammunition
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
High Explosive Ammunition
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
High Explosive Ammunition
 Tank Guns and Ammunition
High Explosive Ammunition
 High Explosive Squash Head (HESH) or High Explosive Plastic
(HEP)
 Projectiles first developed by Briton followed by USA.
 HESH Projectile consists of a thin walled shell filled with a plastic
explosive which is squashed on impact against the surface of the
target and which is detonated by a delayed action fuze. The
detonation of the explosive in close contact with armour generates in
it stress waves which can cause fracture of the inside surface of the
armour followed by spalling of lethal metal scabs.
 HESH projectiles can be made ineffective by spaced armour, the
outer plate of which prevents the generation of stress waves in inner
plate sufficient enough to cause spalling.
 HE ammunition has to be fired at relatively low velocities as it has
this walled shells
 HESH ammunition can not be relied upon to defeat enemy battle
tanks and it has only been adopted as a complement to APFSDS.
 It is also expensive to produce.
 HESH has been rejected in favour of HEAT
Tank Guns and Ammunition

Questions ??