GLASS

AND
ITS
MANUFACT
URING
 GLASS
Glass is obtained by fusion of silica, chalk
(lime) and potash or soda at over
10000C.In order to modify its properties of
hardness, brittleness and colour ,other
ingredients like iron oxide, lead
oxide,borax,etc are added in varying
proportions.
Functions of various important constituents
of glass are given below.
(1) Silica (SiO2):
It is the major constituent of all types of
glass. As it fuses at very high
temperatures some alkaline admixtures
like sodium carbonate or potassium
carbonate is added to it so as to make it
fuse at lower temperature. The
admixtures added to lower the fusion
temperature also make the liquid silica
viscous and better workable.
(2) Potash:
It renders glass infusible and
gives fire resisting properties to
it.
(3) Soda:
It accelerates fusion of glass;
as such excess of it is harmful.
(4) Lime (CaO):
It gives durability and toughness
(hardness) to glass.
(5) Lead oxide:
It gives colour to glass.
(6) Cullet:
It is broken glass, which is used as a
raw material to reduce to its cost.
All the constituents of glass discussed above are
separately ground, sieved and mixed in definite
proportions. The mix is then fused in a tank furnace
or in a pot furnace.
Tank Furnace:
It is used for large scale productions.
Pot Furnace:
It is used for smaller production but of superior
quality.
In the furnace all the ingredients are turned
into molten state and then desired shape of glass is
obtained by Blowing, Flat drawing, Rolling,
Compression moulding and Spinning (pulling),
etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF GLASS:
BASED UPON ITS COMPOSITION:
Glass is generally classified in to three
categories.
(1) Soda lime/soda ash/soft
Glass:
It is obtained from the fusion of a
mixture of silica, lime, soda and
alumina. Powdered glass too may be
added.
(2) Lead Glass:
It is obtained from the fusion of a
mixture of silica, lead and
potash. Powdered glass is
added.
It has shining appearance and takes
good polish. It is not affected by
temperature.
It is used for cut glass work, electric
bulbs.
(3) Boro-silicate Glass:
It is obtained from the fusion of a
mixture of silica, borax, lime, etc.
Powdered glass too may be added.
It can with stand high temperature.
It is used for manufacturing of
laboratory equipments and cooking
utensils.
SPECIAL COMMERCIAL
FO RMS OF GLASS:
For various engineering and
industrial requirements special
varieties of glass with the
desired specifications are made.
These include the following:
(1) Sheet Glass:
Sheet glass is made by blowing.
It is available within 2 to 6 mm
thicknesses.
It is mainly used as door and
window panels and for all kinds
of glazing works.
(2) Plate Glass:
Molten glass is rolled into plate glass
with thicknesses varying from 6 to
25mm. It is also suitable for glazing
works, as table tops, windows, train
carriages, buses, cars, the
windscreens and superior quality
mirrors.
(3) Coloured Glass:
It is prepared by mixing different
pigments at the fusion stage. It
diffuses the light passing
through it. It is also called as
stained glass.
It is used in decorative works.
(4) Wired Glass:
This is the plate and sheet glass in
which steel wires or mesh is
embedded during the rolling process.
The steel wire acts as
reinforcement. It is also called as
reinforced glass.
It is used for sky-lights, high class
roofing works and fire proof
doors and windows.
(5) Structural Glass:
Thi s type of glass is used in constructional
works and can be embedded anywhere within
the walls and ceilings. It is made in the form
of hollow square blocks, tiles, bricks and
lenses. It is light in weight. It can be easily cut
and drilled.
It is used for transparent face work, partition
walls, roofing and flooring works where ever
light is desired to pass through. It is also used
for heat and sound insulation works.
(6) Laminated Glass:
Th is is also safety glass; it
consists of sheets of glass glued
together with a celluloid layer
between them.
It is used for the wind screens
and rear glass in the automobiles
etc.
(7) Bullet-Proof Glass:
This is bullet-resistant glass. It consists of a
num ber of glass layers alternating with vinyl-
resin plastic layers, pressed together. The
inner glass plates are thick and cooling
process is carried out under specially
controlled manner. It is made in variable
thicknesses, varying from 15mm to 80mm.
This glass is used when extra safety measures
are required. It is used in aircrafts, bullet
proof automobiles, cabins, offices and
enclosures.
(8) Fibre Glass:
Th is is also described as glass
wool; it is in the form of glass
fibres which are soft and flexible.
It is highly resistant to wear and
tear.
It is mainly used for all kinds
of thermal and sound
insulation works.
(9) Foam Glass:
It is porous or cellular variety of glass, light
in weight but rigid in form. It is water
proof. Also it is good heat insulator. It can
be sawn or cut into any shape or size like
wood. It is prepared by heating the mixture
of a finely ground glass and carbon.
It is used for all kinds of thermal and sound
insulation works. It is also used for
refrigeration and air conditioning works.
(10) Flint Glass:
It is the glass containing lead which
makes it highly shining and capable of
high polish. It is costly glass. It is also
known as shielding glass as it stops
different kinds of radiations. It is widely
used for high-class glass ware like cut
glass, table glass, as optical glass for
lenses, prisms and slabs, electric bulbs,
electric tubes, radio valves, etc.
(11) Soluble Glass:
It is that type of glass which is
soluble in water. It may be kept in the
form of small chips or pieces or in
liquid glass. It is prepared by melting
a mixture of silica and sodium
sulphate or potassium carbonate.
The soluble glass is used for mixing
with cement to make it resistant to
the acids.
PROPERTIES (OR) CHARACTERISTICS OF
GLASS:
(1)It has highly shining appearance and takes good
polish.
(2)It is not affected by temperature except in some
exceptional cases.
(3) It is fire retardant.
(4) It provides heat insulation.
(5) It also ensures transmission of light.
(6) It is available in various varieties.
(7)It transmits light but also provide privacy by
obstructing vision.
(8)Glass blocks provide heat and sound proof
properties.
USES OF GLASS:
(1)Glass is extensively used in building construction
since long time for glazing doors and windows.
(2) It is also used for decoration.
(3) It is also used for sound insulation purposes.
(4)It is used for cut glass work, electric bulbs (lead
glass).
(5)It is used for manufacturing of laboratory
equipments and cooking utensils (Boro-silicate
glass).
(6) It is used for partition walls.
(7) It is used for cabinets, show cases, shop
fronts.
(8) It is also used as fire retarder.
REINFORCED EARTH
 Basic introduction to the elements of ground
engineering characteristics of reinforcing materials,
definition of reinforced and advantage of RE, Soil
reinforcement interaction.
 Behavior of reinforced earth walls, basis of wall
design, the coulomb force method, the Rankin force
method, internal and external stability condition, field
application of RE.
 Randomly reinforced earth and analysis of
reinforced soils, testing of soil reinforcements.
GEOTEXTILES
 Definitions, functions, properties and application of
geotextiles, design of geotextile applications.
 Definitions, functions, properties and application of geo
membranes, design of geo membranes applications, geo
textiles associated with geo membranes.
 Testing on geo textiles, environmental efforts,
ageing and weathering.
ROUGH IDEA !
HISTORY
CONCEPT OF REINFORCED EARTH ???
 Soils which have little if any tensile strength can also be
strengthened by the inclusion of materials with high tensile
strength.
 This mobilisation of tensile strength is obtained by surface
interaction between the soil and the reinforcement
through friction and adhesion.
 The r.einforced soil is obtained by placing extensible or
inextensible materials such as metallic strips or polymeric
reinforcement within the soil to obtain the requisite
properties.
HISTORY
 This kind of principle is also used in building parts of Great
Wall of China and the Babylonian ziggurats i.e. temples.
 Textile material was perhaps first used in road
construction in South Carolina in the early 1930s.
 The first use of woven synthetic fabrics for erosion
control was made in 1958 by Barrett.
WHY SOIL REINFORCED??
 Improves soil bearing capacity, reduce
settlement.
 Reduce liquefaction behaviour of soil.

 Improves Mechanical Properties of soil.

 More economical then conventional

methods.
MECHANISM OF REINFORCED EARTH
 Soils which have little if any tensile strength can also be
strengthened by the inclusion of materials with high
tensile strength.
 This mobilisation of tensile strength is obtained by
surface interaction between the soil and the
reinforcement through friction and adhesion.
 The reinforced soil is obtained by placing extensible or
inextensible materials such as metallic strips or
polymeric reinforcement within the soil to obtain the
requisite properties.
MECHANISM OF REINFORCED EARTH
 Soil reinforcement through metallic strips, grids or
meshes and polymeric strips sheets is now a well
developed and widely accepted technique of earth
improvement.
 Anchoring and soil nailing is also adopted to
improve the soil properties.
TYPES OF GEO-MATERIALS
(GEOSYNTHETICS FAMILY)
1. Geotextile.
2. Geogrid.
3. Geonet.
4. Geo Membrane
5. GeoComposites
6. Geofoam
7. Geocell
8. Geomat
9. Geomesh
10. Geopipe
11. Geospacer
1. GEOTEXTILE

Woven

Non Woven

Knitted
2.GEO GRID

(i) Uniaxial (ii) Biaxial

(iii) Bonded (iv) Woven
3. GEONET.
4. GEO MEMBRANE
5. GEOCOMPOSITES

 Combination of one or
more type of
geosynthtics for
modified function.
6.GEOFOAM

 Foam like material, provided for functions

mentioned below:
 Moisture retention.

 Erosion protection.

 Generally gives temporary solution of the

problem.
7.GEOCELL
 GEO CELL
(a) Geocell – (i) site assembled, (ii) factory produced (A) collapsed form, (B)
expanded form
8.GEOMAT
9.GEOMESH
10.GEOPIPE
11.GEOSPACER
TYPES OF GEOSYNTHETICS & THEIR SYMBOLS
POLYMERS COMMONLY
USED FOR THE
MANUFACTURE OF
GEOSYNTHETICS
 Composite Material Diagnosed
• A composite material is made by combining two or more materials – often ones
that have very different properties.
• The two materials work together to give the composite unique properties.
• However, within the composite you can easily tell the different materials apart
as they do not dissolve or blend into each other.
Simply
 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE.
• Reason to use composite material:-
I. Higher specific strength than metals, non-metals and even alloys.
II. Lower specific gravity in general.
III. Improved stiffness of material.
IV. Composite maintain their weight even at high temperatures.
V. Toughness is improved.
VI. Fabrication or production is cheaper.
VII. Creep and fatigue strength is better.
VIII. Controlled Electrical conductivity is possible.
IX. Corrosion and oxidation resistance.
 HISTORY OF COMPOSITES
◊ Straw reinforcement mud cited in old testament _organic fiber –
reinforced CMC
◊ GFRP well established by 1950s
◊ R&D on advanced composites:CCCs,PMCs,MMCs AND CMCs started
1960s-1970s
◊ Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers(CFRPs) became dominant
advanced composites in 1970s
◊ CCCs established for thermal protection around 1970s
• MMCs used in specialty applications
- Automobile engines
- Electronics thermal management
Definition:
They generally have two phases:-
1. Matrix Phase.
2. Dispersion Phase.
 Matrix Phase :-
It is the continuous material constituent which encloses the composite and
give it its bulk form.
Matrix phase may be metal , ceramic or polymer.
 Dispersion Phase:-
It is the structure constituent , which determines the internal structure of
composite.
Dispersion Phase is connected to matrix phase by bonding
TWO PHASE COMPOSITE:
 Types of composites.
Composite.

Particle-reinforced Fibre-reinforced Structural

Large particle Dispersion- Continuous Discontinuous Laminates Sandwich

strengthened (Alignment) (Short) panels

Aligned Randomly
oriented
REINFORCEMENTS
 GFRP SHEETS GFRP ROLLS

A composite material made of a polymer

reinforced with fibres.

Consists of thermosetting resins and glass

fibre.
Benefits of GFRP

. High Strength
. Lightweight
. Resistance
. Design flexibility
. Seamless Construction
. Low maintenance
. Durability
 Composite Constituents
• Resins
• Reinforcements
• Fillers
• Additives
 MATERIALS
REINFORCEMENT
RESINS
• Used as base material for • Glass fibre is the
reinforcement layer. reinforcement in this plastic
• Transfer stress between
reinforcing fibres and to
protect them from
mechanical and
environmental damage.
 FIBRE GEOMETRY
ALLIGNED FIBRES
• In this type of alignment, the fibres are woven parallel to each
other
RANDOM FIBRES
• In this type of alignment, the fibres are woven randomly
according to a specific density.
WOVEN FIBRES
• In this type of alignment, the fibres are woven in the shape of a
net. It is the strongest among the three.
 MANUFACTURE

• Plastic is manufactured by addition polymerization and step

growth polymerization .
• It is known as matrix.
• The plastic which is under polymerization is mixed with glass
fibre, enhance the strength and elasticity of the plastic.
• This results in the formation of Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic
(GFRP)
Applications
GFRP can be used for both interior and
exterior fixtures in a variety of shapes, styles,
and textures; in new buildings or restorative
projects.
-Domes
-Fountains
-Columns
-Balustrade
-Planters
-Panels
-Sculpture
-Entryways
-Moldings
-Facades
-Cornice
-Porticos
-Cupolas
-Signs THE ROOF IS MADE OF GFRP
-Roofs
ARCHITECTURAL USES AND
ADVANTAGES:-
- Due to its translucent nature and less weight, it is used as a roofing material in
various places . It also helps to allow only partial light through it.
- Due its cost efficiency, it is even used as partitioning material between two
spaces.
- It can be easily shaped due to its more elasticity.
- It is a good heat resisting material.
- Has a very high strength to weight ratio
- Low weights of 2 to 4 lbs. per square foot means, Faster installation, less structural
framing, and lower shipping costs
- Resists salt water, chemicals, and the environment - unaffected by acid rain,
salts, and most chemicals
- Domes and cupolas are resigned together to form a one-piece, watertight,
structurable to Mold Complex Shapes Virtually any shape or form can be
molded
- Research shows no loss of laminate properties after 30 years
- Stromberg GFRP stood up to category 5 hurricane Floyd with no damage, while
nearby structures were destroyed, this gives a clear example about the
strength of it
 IMAGES

SHEETS OF GFRP (FOR ROOFING)

COLOR VARIATION IN FIBRE

ROLL OF GLASS FIBRES

ZOOMED GLASS FIBRE

HELMET GLASS
TRANSPARENT GFRP SHEET