CE 6401/CM/ UNIT V – MODERN MATERIALS

UNIT V
MODERN MATERIALS
Glass – Ceramics – Sealants for joints – Fibre glass reinforced plastic – Clay products – Refractories –
Composite materials – Types – Applications of laminar composites – Fibre textiles – Geo membranes and
Geo textiles for earth reinforcement.

Glass:
Glass is an amorphous substance having homogeneous texture. It is a hard, brittle, transparent or
translucent material. It is the most common material glazed into frames for doors, windows and curtain
walls.
 The most common types used in building construction are sheet, plate, laminated, insulating,
tempered, wired and patterned glass.
 Most ordinary colourless glasses are alkali-lime silicate and alkali-lead silicate with tensile
and compressive strengths of about 30–60 N/mm2 and 700–1000N/mm2, respectively and

modulus of elasticity in the range 0.45 × 105 to 0.8 × 105 N/mm2.

 The strength is very much afftected by internal defects, cords and foreign intrusions.
 The main shortcoming of glass is its brittleness which depends on a number of factors, the
chief one being the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of the material to its tensile strength.
Constituents:
The raw materials used in manufacturing of glass are sand, lime (chalks) and soda or
potash which are fused over 1000° C. Oxides of iron, lead and borax are added to modify
hardness, brilliance and colour.
Functions: The functions of the various ingredients are as follows.
Silica:
 It is used in the form of pure quartz, crushed sandstone and pulverised flint; should befree
from iron contents for best quality glass.
 Since it melts at very high temperatures (1710° C) carbonates of sodium or potassium are
added to lower down the fusing temperature to about 800° C.
 These also make liquid silica more viscous and workable.

Lime:
 It is used in the form of limestone, chalk or pure marble and sometimes marl.
 The addition of lime makes the glass fluid and suitable for blowing, drawing, rolling,
pressing or spinning.
 It also imparts durability and toughness to glass. Excess of lime makes the molten mass too
thin
 for fabrication.

Soda: Acts as an accelerator for the fusion of glass and an excess of it is harmful.

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Potash: Renders glass infusible and makes glass fire resistant.

Red-Oxide:
 It imparts colour, brightness and shine.
 When 15–30% of it added to substitute lime it lowers the melting point, imparts good
workability, while its transparency is lost with the glass becoming brittle and crystalline.

Cullets:
 These are broken glasses added to act as a flux to prevent loss of alkali by volatisation
during the process of forming glass and also to lower the fusion temperature.
 However, flux may reduce the resistance of glass to chemical attack, render it water-soluble
or make it subject to partial or complete devitrification (crystallisation) on cooling.
 These crystalline areas are extremely weak and brittle. Stabilizers are added to overcome
these defects.

Titanic acid, Oxides of Cobalt & Nickel are used for chromatic neutralisation.
Classification:
Depending upon the constituents glasses are classified as soda-lime glass, lead glass and
borosilicate glass.
a)Soda –Lime Glass:
 It is also known as soda-ash glass, soda glass or soft glass. Soda-lime glass is obtained by
fusing a mixture of silica, lime and soda.
 The quality of this glass can be improved by adding alumina and magnesium oxide and the
glass is then called crown_glass.
 This is the most common type of glass used in doors, windows and for making glass-wares
such as bottles.

b)Lead Glass:
 It is also known as flint glass is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, lead and potash.
 It is free from iron impurities and is colourless.
 Lead glass has high shining appearance and can take polish. It is not affected by temperature.
 Electric bulbs, optical glasses, cut glass, ornamental glass works and radio valves are some
of the articles made from it.

c)Boro-Silicate Glass:
 It is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, borax, lime and felspar.
 The examples are pyrex glass and heat resisting glass.

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 Boro-silicate glass can withstand high temperatures and is most suitable for making
laboratory equipments and cooking utensils
Commercial Forms:
a)Sheet Glass:
 It is used for glazing doors, windows and partitions and is obtained by blowing the molten
glass into the shape of a cylinder.
 The ends of the cylinder so produced are cut away and the cylinder is flattened over a plane
tray.
 It is available in thicknesses of 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 5.5 and 6.5 mm and up to 1750 × 1100 mm
size and is classified as
Type Uses
Ordinary glazing quality General engineering purpose
Selected glazing quality Class works
Special selected quality Superior quality works such as show cases
. and cabinets etc
b)Plate Glass:
 It is used for all engineering purposes and is superior to sheet glass.
 A plate glass differs from a sheet glass in that it has a parallel, distortion-free surface
obtained by grinding or floating process.
 It is produced by pouring the molten glass on casting tables and leveling it to an uniform
thickness. Both the glass surfaces are then ground, smoothened and polished.
 Glass so produced is clear and contains unblemished true plane surfaces and is available in
 thicknesses of 3 to 32 mm and sizes up to 2750 × 900 mm. It is classified as
Type Uses
Ground glass quality Showcases, cabinets,counters shop fronts,etc
Selected glazing quality Making mirrors
Special selected quality High class works, wind screen of vehicles
c)Tempered Glass:
 It is made from plate glass by reheating and sudden cooling and is 3 to 5 times stronger than
plate glass.
 Although not unbreakable, it resists bending stress better than plate glass and, when broken,
the pieces are relatively small in size.
 It is used extensively in sports arenas, sliding doors and curtain walls.

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d)Wired Glass:
 It is produced by embedding wire nets 0.46 to 0.56 mm into the centre of sheet glass during
casting.
 The minimum thickness of wired glass is 6 mm. When broken it does not fall into pieces.
 It has higher melting point than ordinary glass.
 Wired glass is used for fire resisting doors and windows, for sky lights and roofs.
 A special example of this is wired-refrax glass which transmits 100 per cent more light than
the other glasses.
e)Obscured Glass:
 It is made comparatively opaque to sunlight. Also known as patterned glass.
 They are classified as frosted, rolled and ribbed.
i)Frosted : is produced by subjecting the polished face of the glass to a sand blast which
grinds off the surface.
It can also be produced by etching on glass by hydrofluoric acid.
ii)Rolled :has a series of waves of desired pattern on the surface and is also known as
figured rolled glass.
iii)Ribbed: A series of triangular ribs are produced in the glass during casting.
f)Laminated Glass:
 It is made by sandwiching a layer of polyvinyl butyral between two or more layers of plate or
sheet glass.
 It is also lso known as safety glass.
 The examples are heat proof glass, sound proof glass and bullet proof glass.

.i)Heat & Sound-Prof glass: Two or more glass plates are sandwiched by a tinted plastic inner layer.
It provides high resistance to heat and glare. By increasing the thickness
of plastic layer the glass can be made more sound resistant.
ii)Bullet Proof glass: is produced by placing vinyl plastic and glass in several alternate layers
and pressing them with outer layers of glass.
It is used in banks, jewellery stores and display windows.
iii)Laminated glass: is composed of two glass plates into which a layer of 6–13 mm thick
dehydrated air is sealed.
The round edges are formed by fusing together the two glass plates.
These glasses reduce the heat transmission by 30–60 per cent.

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g)Heat absorbing Glass:

 It is bluish green in colour and cuts ultra violet rays of sun.
 The example is calorex.
 It is used in railway carriages, factories, hospitals, health clubs and kitchens.
h)Ground Glass:
 In this type of glass one face of plate or sheet glass is made rough by grinding.
 It is used for maintaining privacy by obstructing vision and at the same time allowing light.
 The ground glass is used for bedrooms, toilets and for making black boards.
i)Bolck Glass:
 It is hollow sealed made by fastening together two halves of pressed glass.
 It is used for making partitions.
j)Coloured Glass: is produced by adding oxides of metals to molten glass:
Types of glasses Metal oxide
Ruby red glass Lead glass, 1 per cent of cupric oxide and 1 percent
of magnetic oxide of iron
Ruby rose glass Gold chloride is used as colouring agent. Brownish red
colour is obtained by adding oxide of iron, bluish red
shade is obtained by adding2 per cent MnO2 and –4 per
cent nitre (KnO3).
Blue glass 0.1 per cent of cobalt oxide in ordinary glass.

Yellow glass
(a) Uranium glass (greenish yellow) 2–3% of alkali uranate.
(b) Selenium glass (orange) Selenite& a reducing agent or ferric oxide & MnO2.
Green glass (emerald green) Oxide of chromium Cr2O7.
Violet glass (violet) MnO2
Black glass Oxide of Co and Mn.
k)Opal Glass:
 It is also known as milk glass.
 It is produced by adding bone ash, oxide of tin and white arsenic to vitreosil (99.5% silica
glass known as clear silica glass).
 The composition is 10 parts of sand, 4 parts cryolite and 1 part zinc oxide.
l)Enamel Glass:
 It is produced by adding calcined lead and tin oxide to the ordinary glass.

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 The composition is 10 parts sand, 20 per cent lead and tin oxide and 8 parts potash.
m)Optical Glass:
 It contains phosphorus, lead silicate and a little cerium oxide, the latter capable of absorbing
ultraviolet light injurious to eyes.
 They are used for making lenses.
Ceramics:
“Ceramics refer to polycrystalline materials and products formed by baking natural
clays and mineral admixtures at a high temperature and also by sintering oxides of various
metals and inorganic substances having high melting point. “
 The word is of Greek origin and derives its name from Keromos meaning potter’s earth or
clay. But, nowadays the term ceramic is applied to a wide range of silicates, metallic oxides
and their combinations.
 Carbon, boron, silicon, certain carbides, silicates, refractory hydrides and sulphides are also
considered to be ceramics.
 As a building material, ceramics, may include brick, stone, concrete, glass, abrasives,
porcelain,high temperature refractories, etc.
 Clay is the most common example of ceramic materials.
 Magnesium oxide can withstand high temperatures (1650–2500°) without melting and is used
extensively as a refractory.
 Ceramics are usually hard and brittle and are in the form of amorphous (non-crystalline) or
glassy solids.
 The bond in these materials is mixed ionic and covalent and while these can bemade in single
crystal forms, their more common structure is glassy.
 Because of covalent ionic bond the electrons are not free which makes the ceramics, thermal
and electrical insulators.
 At low temperatures, ceramics behave elastically. However, under proper conditions of stress
and temperature these deform by viscous flow.
Classification:
On the basis of their internal structure the ceramics are classified as clay products, refractories
and glasses.
Sealants:
Sealants are typically lower strength, yet flexible, bonding agents used between
substrates of differing physical properties to form a seal between the materials. A sealant may
be viscous material that has little or no flow characteristics and which stay where they are

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applied; or they can be thin and runny so as to allow it to penetrate the substrate by means of
capillary action
Functions:
 Sealants, despite not having great strength, convey a number of properties.
 They seal top structures to the substrate, and are particularly effective
in waterproofing processes by keeping moisture out (or in) the components in which they are
used.
 They can provide thermal and acoustical insulation, and may serve as fire barriers.
 They may have electrical properties, as well. Sealants can also be used for simple smoothing
or filling.
 They are often called upon to perform several of these functions at once.
Types :

 a)Acrylic resins b) Acoustic sealants c)Adhesive sealants d )Butyl rubber e)Elastic sealants
f)Epoxy g) Extruded sealants h)Fibrin glue i) Firestop barrier sealants j)Floor sealant k)Foam
l)Hot wax m)Impregnating sealants n)Latex sealants o)Metal sealants p)Patio sealants q)Paint
sealants r)Plastic sealants s)Polysulfide sealants t)Polyurethane sealants u)Rubber sealants
v)Sealcoat Seam sealants w)Silicone sealantx) Stone sealer y) Tile sealant z)Valve seal Varnish
& Urethane sealants
APPLICATION
Sealants are used to seal joints and openings in various architectural applications, which include:

 High- and low-rise commercial buildings:

 Exterior and interior perimeter of windows
 Roofing and flashing penetrations and terminations
 Building and material expansion joints
 Interior perimeters of doors, baseboards, and moldings
 Plazas and parking deck joints in traffic surfaces
 Joints between tilt-up concrete exterior panels
 Airport runway and apron pavement joints
 Bridge and highway pavement joints
 Sidewalks, parking lots and flat work joints
 Water and wastewater treatment facility joints (including in submerged environments)
 Part of a fire and smoke stop assembly for joints and penetrations
 Structural sealant glazing
Sealing of Various Joint Types in Buildings
Protection systems of joints include the sealing of cracks, contraction (control) joints,
expansion joints, and construction joints. Joint sealants in concrete minimize the intrusion of liquids,
solids, or gases, and protect the concrete against damage. Sealing of various types of joints is
discussed below:
a) Cracks: Cracks are produced in concrete due to shrinkage, thermal changes, structural-related
stresses, and long-term strain shortening. Before selecting a sealant, the reason for the cracking must

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be determined and moving cracks must be identified. In some cases, structural bonding of a crack
may be required, whereas in other situations, restraint across the crack is to be avoided.
b) Contraction (control) joints: Contraction joints are intentional gaps / discontinuities provided to
control crack locations to accommodate the contraction of concrete. The necessary plane of
weakness may be formed by reducing the concrete cross section by tooling or saw cutting a joint,
usually within 24 h. It must be sealed in such a way that it must allow contraction to occur.

c) Expansion (isolation) joints: Expansion joints are made by providing a space over the entire
cross section between abutting structural units and are used to prevent crushing and distortion of
abutting concrete structural units due to the transmission of compressive forces that may be
developed by expansion, applied loads, or differential movements arising from the configuration of
the structure or its settlement.

d) Construction joints: Construction joints are formed by interruptions in the placement of concrete
or due to the positioning of precast units. Locations are usually predetermined so as to limit the work
that can be done at one time to a convenient size. They may be required to function later as
expansion or contraction joints, or they may be required to be firmly bonded together so as to
maintain complete structural integrity. Construction joints may run horizontally or vertically
depending on the placing sequence prescribed by the design of the structure.

e) Sealing methods: Methods to seal joints include injection techniques, routing and caulking,
bonding, installing pre-molded seals, or installing appropriate surface protection systems (such as
elastomeric membranes).

Fibre Glass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) :

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Fiberglass (or fibreglass) is a type of fiber reinforced plastic where the reinforcement
fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be randomly arranged but is commonly woven
into a mat. The plasticmatrix may be a thermosetting plastic- most often epoxy, polyester resin- or
vinylester, or a thermoplastic.
(or)
Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also fibre-reinforced polymer) is a composite material made of
a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually glass, carbon,basalt or aramid
although other fibres such as paper or wood or asbestos have been sometimes used.

 Other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) or glass-fiber
reinforced plastic (GFRP) Fiberglass is also known as GFK,
 The polymer is usually an epoxy, vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic, and phenol
formaldehyde resins are still in use.
 FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine, construction industries and
ballistic armor.

Benefits:
The benefits of using steel fibres in concrete are as follows:
1. Steel Fibres are generally distributed throughout a given cross section whereas reinforcing bars or
wires are placed only where required
2. Steel fibres are relatively short and closely spaced as compared with countinuous reinforcing bars
of wires.
3. It is generally not possible to achieve the same area of reinforcement to area of concrete using
steel fibres as compared to using a network of reinforcing bars of wires.
4. Steel Fibers are typically added to concrete in low volume dosages (often less than 1%), and have
been shown to be effective in reducing plastic shrinkage cracking.
5. Steel Fibers typically do not significantly alter free shrinkage of concrete, however at high enough
dosages they can increase the resistance to cracking and decrease crack width

Steel Fibres in Concrete can improve:

 Crack, Impact and Fatigue Resistance
 Shrinkage Reduction
 Toughness- by preventing/delaying crack propogation from micro-cracks to macro-cracks.

Uses of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete

o SFRC distributes localized stresses.
o Reduction in maintaince and repair cost.
o Provides tough and durable surfaces.
o Reduces surface permeability, dusting and wear.
o Cost saving.
o They act as crack arrestor.
o Increases tensile strength and toughness.
o Resistance to impact.
o Resistance to freezing and thawing

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Clay Products:
Structural clay products, ceramic products intended for use in building construction.
Typical structural clay products are building brick, paving brick, terra-cotta facing tile, roofing tile,
and drainage pipe.
These objects are made from commonly occurring natural materials, which are mixed with water,
formed into the desired shape, and fired in a kiln in order to give the clay mixture a permanent bond.
Finished structural clay products display such essential properties as load-bearing strength, resistance
to wear, resistance to chemical attack, attractive appearance, and an ability to take a decorative
finish.
Properties:
 The properties exhibited by structural clay products are determined by particle size, firing
temperature, and ultimate microstructure.
 Compared with finer ceramic products such as whitewares, much coarser filler particles are
used, and lower firing temperatures are employed—typically in the range of 1,050° to 1,100°
C (approximately 1,925° to 2,000° F).
 At such low temperatures the filler particles (usually crushed quartz) are normally not
affected. Instead, the clay or shale ingredients contain sufficient impurities to melt and form
a glass, thus bonding the particles together.
 As is the case with whitewares, crystalline mullite needles grow into this glassy phase.
 The resulting microstructure consists of large secondary particles embedded in a matrix of
fine-grained mullite and glass—all containing a substantial volume of large pores.
 Because of the presence of large and small particles in their microstructures, fired clay
products have relatively high compressive strengths.

 This ability to bear relatively heavy loads without fracture is the prime property qualifying
these products for structural applications.

 The size and number of pores is also important.

 If underfired, structural clay products have low strength and poor resistance to frost and
freezing, owing to the presence of many small pores in the clay regions

 Overfired ware, on the other hand, has too much glass. It is strong but brittle and is
susceptible to failure under mechanical and thermal stress.

 Furthermore, it is impossible to obtain a good bond when glassy products are used with
mortars. Small pores and high glass content are desirable, however, when chemical resistance
and imperviousness to water penetration are required.

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Products
 There is a wide variety of structural clay products, broadly classified as facing materials,
load-bearing materials, paving materials, roofing tile, and chemically resistant materials.
 Examples of facing materials are face brick, terra-cotta, brick veneer, sculptured brick,
glazed brick and tile, and decorative brick.
 Building brick, hollow brick, and structural tile for floors and walls are examples of load-
bearing materials.
 Paving materials include light traffic pavers, quarry tile, and paving brick—this last product
once in more common use than at present.
 Roofing tiles are quite common in many parts of the world, red and black colours being of
particular note.
 Chemically resistant materials include sewer pipe, industrial floor brick, drain tile, flue liners,
chimney brick, and chemical stoneware.

Refractories:
The ability of a material to withstand prolonged action of high temperature (1580° C
and onwards) without appreciable softening under service condition is known as refractoriness
expressed in degrees C.
 These materials are capable of withstanding high temperature in different industrial
processes.
 In addition to the thermal endurance, a refractory should be able to resist the chemical action
of the material being heated and withstand the mechanical load.
 They have high dimensional and chemical stability and do not lose their physical shape and
chemical composition.
 Refractories confine the heat and prevent the heat loss to the atmosphere from the outside
walls of furnaces.
 Refractories are not pure compounds and hence do not possess a sharp fusion point.
 Softening temperature is determined rather than fusion point.
 It is generally measured by the softening or the melting point of the material and is
determined by the pyromeric cone method, with the aid of tetrahedral cones or elongated
pyramids, made of the same material to be tested, the size being 20 mm base and 40 mm
height.
 They are heated until they soften and bend to touch the base. These cones are then compared
with the standard Segar cone of known refractoriness, kept under same thermal load.
 The value is known as Pyromeric Cone Equivalent (PCE).
 Fire-clay and high alumina clay soften gradually over a range of temperature, whereas, others
silica softens over a relatively narrow range.
Classification:
On the basis of Chemical Behaviour
a) Acid Refractories: combine readily with bases. Their chief constituent is silica: quartz, sand,

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ganister and silica bricks.

b) Basic Refractories: consist mainly of basic oxides: magnesite and dolomite.

c) Neutral Refractories: consist of materials which do not combine with either basic or acidic oxides:
silicon carbide, chromite and carbon.
On the base of Use:
a)Siliceous Refractories :
 It containing not less than 93 per cent SiO2 are used for roof, metallurgical furnaces and glass
tanks.
 This is an acid refractory made from hard, dense quartzite and sand stone.

b)Alumo –silicate Refractories:

 It may be semi-acid type containing silica (over 65 per cent), chamotte with 30–45 % alumina
are used in brickwork, lining of furnances; alumina (less than 35 per cent) or high-alumina
variety with more than 45 per cent alumina are used in glass industry for furnace brickwork.
 Aluminosilicate items are used to line cupolas, coke ovens etc.

c)Magnesian Refractories:
 It consist chiefly of MgO (80–85%) and their refractoriness may be as high as 2000° C.
 In is an important basic refractory.
 It finds application in extractive metallurgy.

d)Chromous Refractories:
 They are obtained from chromous iron ore blended with magnesia and alumina.
 Their refractoriness is 1800-2000°C. and they withstand attack by iron ore slags.
 They are used in steel making furnaces.

e)Carbonaceoues Refractories: are manufactured from graphite or coke. These have refractoriness
above 1700° C and are resistant to attack by molten slags.

Properties:
 Refractories are capable of withstanding high temperatures, thermal shocks and rough usage.
 The expansion and contraction of these materials is minimum.
 They are chemically inactive at high temperatures and are resistant to the fluxing action of
slags and corrosive action of gases.
 Refractories are good thermal insulators and have low electrical conductivity. 0–2000° C and
they withstand attack by iron ore slags.
 They are used in steel making furnaces.
Composite Materials:
“ Composite materials (also called composition materials or shortened to
composites) are materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different
physical or chemical properties, that when combined, produce a material with characteristics
different from the individual components”

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Types of Composites
Composite materials are usually classified by the type of reinforcement they use. This
reinforcement is embedded into a matrix that holds it together. The reinforcement is used to
strengthen the composite.

For example :In a mud brick, the matrix is the mud and the reinforcement is the straw.

Common composite types include random-fiber or short-fiber reinforcement, continuous-fiber or

long-fiber reinforcement, particulate reinforcement, flake reinforcement, and filler reinforcement.

a)Mud Building Bricks

 Mud building bricks are examples of a composite material invented by ancient humans.

 A brick formed only with mud is sturdy and resistant to compression, but it has little
flexibility, and it can break if bent.
 Straw has excellent tensile strength, meaning that it resists stretching.
 By combining both straw with mud, ancient humans were able to create composite bricks that
could remain flexible while supporting weight and resisting compression.
b)Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
 Concrete is a composite material made of cement, sand, stones and water.
 A chemical reaction that occurs when you combine these materials makes concrete stronger
than any one of its components.
 Concrete is commonly used in building and road construction.
 When you add reinforced steel rods to the concrete, you create another composite with
greater strength and flexibility called reinforced concrete.
c)Fiberglass
 Fiberglass is made of tiny glass shards held together by resin and other components.
 In the automotive industry, fiberglass is important for making body kits.
 The body shell for a car is made up of different layers of fiberglass, such as a gel-coat layer,
tissue layer, matting and cloth.
 The final product is a complete, waterproof, lightweight and strong body kit. Fiberglass can
also be a less expensive alternative to other materials.
d)Natural Composites
 Composites can be easily found in nature.
 Wood is an example of a composite because cellulose fibers are held together by a substance
called lignin.
 These fibers can be found in cotton and thread, but it’s the bonding power of lignin in wood
that makes it much tougher.
 Certain types of large rocks can also be regarded as natural composites when they are
composed of a variety of smaller rocks and minerals.
Typical engineered composite materials include:

1) Composite building materials such as cements, concrete

2) Reinforced plastics such as fiber-reinforced polymer
3) Metal Composites
4) Ceramic Composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)

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 The most common are: Fibre reinforced composites &Particulate reinforced composites.
 The most common type is polymer matrix composites, however, metal matrix composites, and
ceramic matrix composites are also common, as are natural composites such as wood

Uses: Composite materials are generally used for

o Buildings, &Bridges
o Structures such as boat hulls, swimming pool panels, race car bodies, shower stalls, bathtubs,
storage tanks, imitation granite.
o Cultured marble sinks
o Counter tops.

Laminar Composites

Platelets or lamina have two long dimensions. Laminar composites include plywood, which is a
laminated composite of thin layers of wood in which successive layers have different grain or fiber
orientations. The result is a more-or-less isotropic composite sheet that is weaker in any direction
than it would be if the fibers were all aligned in one direction. The stainless steel in a cooking vessel
with a copper-clad bottom provides corrosion resistance while the copper provides better heat
distribution over the base of the vessel

GEOTEXTILES AND GEOMEMBRANES:

Definitions, deference, Types, properties, and applications

Geotextiles are permeable fabrics used in geotechnical engineering. Flexible sheets made of
synthetic plastic or rubber as well as fabrics made ”impermeable” by impregnation are referred as
geomembranes.

Definitions (used in textile technology)

Monofilament wovens -contains single filaments in warp (machine direction) and weft (cross
machine) direction.

Multifilament wovens - made of multifilament yarns in warp and weft direction.

Tape wovens - Split–film tapes (rather than filaments with circular or elliptical cross section) are
used.

Non wovens - Have essentially random textile structure they are further categorized according to
how fibers are interlocked or bonded, which is achieved by mechanical, chemical, thermal means.

Knitteds - Produced by interlooping one or more ends of yarn or comparable material.

Types (Examples of geotextiles)

 Bidim, Foss Geomat , Trevira (non woven-needle –punched polyester)

 Polyfelt sodoca, (non woven, needle-punched polypropylene)
 Typar (non woven, spun-bonded poly propylene)
 Terram 700 (non woven, melded, 33% polyethylene,67% poly propylene.)

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 Geolon, Nicolon, polytrac, propex (woven polypropylene)

 Terra firma (woven polyester)
 Terrafix 370Rs, Lotrack 200 (woven –nonwoven composites)

Application Purpose of geotextiles

Pavements on soft soil increase in bearing capacity
Pavement overlays inhibit crack propagation.

Rail roads prevent ballast contamination,distribute load on subgrade.

Embankments improve stability, provide drainage .

Retaining structures reinforce and protect backfill

Natural slopes protect slope against erosion,reinforce soil,provide drainage.

Rivers ,canals and reservoirs Replace or improve traditional filter layers,erosion control.

extract and collect granular pollutants,reinforce and protect

Water pollution control geomembranes,relieve pore water or gas pressure below
membranes.

prevent erosion and sand migration, act as filter and drainage

Shore protection
layer
Building elements form soil- cement filled bags and tubes to create columns

GeoMembrane

A geomembrane is very low permeability synthetic membrane liner or barrier used with any
geotechnical engineering related material so as to control fluid (or gas) migration in a human-made
project, structure, or system. Geomembranes are made from relatively thin continuous polymeric
sheets, but they can also be made from the impregnation of geotextiles with asphalt, elastomer or
polymer sprays, or as multilayered bitumen geocomposites. Continuous polymer sheet
geomembranes are, by far, the most common.

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Physical Properties

The main physical properties of geomembranes in the as-manufactured state are:

 Thickness (smooth sheet, textured, asperity height)

 Density
 Melt flow index
 Mass per unit area (weight)
 Vapor transmission (water and solvent).

Mechanical Properties

There are a number of mechanical tests that have been developed to determine the strength of
polymeric sheet materials. Many have been adopted for use in evaluating geomembranes. They
represent both quality control and design, i.e., index versus performance tests.

 tensile strength and elongation (index, wide width, axisymmetric, and seams)
 tear resistance
 impact resistance
 puncture resistance
 interface shear strength
 anchorage strength
 stress cracking (constant load and single point).

Applications

Geomembranes have been used in the following environmental, geotechnical, hydraulic,

transportation, and private development applications:

 As liners for potable water

 As liners for reserve water (e.g., safe shutdown of nuclear facilities)
 As liners for waste liquids (e.g., sewage sludge)
 Liners for radioactive or hazardous waste liquid
 As liners for secondary containment of underground storage tanks
 As liners for solar ponds
 As liners for brine solutions
 As liners for the agriculture industry
 As liners for the aquiculture industry
 As liners for golf course water holes and sand bunkers
 As liners for all types of decorative and architectural ponds
 As liners for water conveyance canals
 As liners for various waste conveyance canals
 As liners for primary, secondary, and/or tertiary solid-waste landfills and waste piles
 As liners for heap leach pads
 As covers (caps) for solid-waste landfills
 As covers for aerobic and anaerobic manure digesters in the agriculture industry
 As covers for power plant coal ash
 As liners for vertical walls: single or double with leak detection

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 As cutoffs within zoned earth dams for seepage control

 As linings for emergency spillways
 As waterproofing liners within tunnels and pipelines
 As waterproof facing of earth and rockfill dams
 As waterproof facing for roller compacted concrete dams
 As waterproof facing for masonry and concrete dams
 Within cofferdams for seepage control
 As floating reservoirs for seepage control
 As floating reservoir covers for preventing pollution
 To contain and transport liquids in trucks
 To contain and transport potable water and other liquids in the ocean
 As a barrier to odors from landfills
 As a barrier to vapors (radon, hydrocarbons, etc.) beneath buildings
 To control expansive soils
 To control frost-susceptible soils
 To shield sinkhole-susceptible areas from flowing water
 To prevent infiltration of water in sensitive areas
 To form barrier tubes as dams
 To face structural supports as temporary cofferdams
 To conduct water flow into preferred paths
 Beneath highways to prevent pollution from deicing salts
 Beneath and adjacent to highways to capture hazardous liquid spills
 As containment structures for temporary surcharges
 To aid in establishing uniformity of subsurface compressibility and subsidence
 Beneath asphalt overlays as a waterproofing layer
 To contain seepage losses in existing above-ground tanks
 As flexible forms where loss of material cannot be allowed.
 As liners for fish pond

Geo-textiles:

Geotextiles are permeable fabrics which, when used in association with soil, have the ability to
separate, filter, reinforce, protect, or drain. Typically made from polypropylene or polyester,
geotextile fabrics come in three basic forms: woven (resembling mail bag sacking), needle punched
(resembling felt), or heat bonded (resembling ironed felt).

Geotextile composites have been introduced and products such as geogrids and meshes have been
developed. Overall, these materials are referred to as geosynthetics and each configuration-geonets,
geogrids and others—-can yield benefits in geotechnical and environmental engineering design.

Applications

A silt fence on a construction site.

Geotextiles and related products have many applications and currently support many civil
engineering applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, retaining structures,
reservoirs, canals, dams, bank protection, coastal engineering and construction site silt fences.
Usually geotextiles are placed at the tension surface to strengthen the soil. Geotextiles are also used
for sand dune armoring to protect upland coastal property from storm surge, wave action and
flooding. A large sand-filled container (SFC) within the dune system prevents storm erosion from
proceeding beyond the SFC. Using a sloped unit rather than a single tube eliminates damaging

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scour.

Erosion control manuals comment on the effectiveness of sloped, stepped shapes in mitigating
shoreline erosion damage from storms. Geotextile sand-filled units provide a "soft" armoring solution
for upland property protection. Geotextiles are used as matting to stabilize flow in stream channels
and swales.

Geotextiles can improve soil strength at a lower cost than conventional soil nailing. In addition,
geotextiles allow planting on steep slopes, further securing the slope.

Geotextiles have been used to protect the fossil hominid footprints of Laetoli in Tanzania from
erosion, rain, and tree roots.

In building demolition, geotextile fabrics in combination with steel wire fencing can contain
explosive debris.

Coir (coconut fiber) geotextiles are popular for erosion control, slope stabilization and
bioengineering, due to the fabric's substantial mechanical strength. Coir geotextiles last
approximately 3 to 5 years depending on the fabric weight. The product degrades into humus,
enriching the soil.

BASIC FUNCTIONS

 Drainage
 Filtration
 Separation
 Reinforcement

Drainage:

Collecting and redirecting seepage water within a soil mass or adjacent to retaining walls culverts
and tunnel linings .

Ex - Non-woven fabrics or composits have sufficient inflow capacity to fulfill this function.

Filtration:

Geotextiles acts as a filter if it allows seepage from a water bearing layer while preventing most soil
particles from being carried away by the water flow.

Separation:

It is achieved if the fabric prevents mixing of adjacent dissimilar soils which may occur during
construction or may be caused by repeated external loading of a soil layer system Most fabrics can
act as separators provided they have adequate strength.

Reinforcement

Means the inclusion of the fabric to provide tensile strength, redistribution of stresses and / or
confinement, thereby increasing the stability of a soil mass, reducing earth pressures, or decreasing

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deformation or susceptibility to cracking.

Fabrics are used to provide containment if they are used to form soil or concrete filled bags, tubes,
or mattresses. Fabrics are used to act as a tensioned membrane if it supports loads across a gap or
plastic zone of soft soil.

Fabrics may be required to provide cushioning against localized stresses which may cause
puncturing or abrasion

If placed on the surface of a slope the geotextile may prevent erosion and dispersion of soil due to
wind,surface runoff or wave action.

The function of fabrics in major area of application

Major functions
Special Most important
Application in order of
Consideration properties
priority
Separation, drainage,
Pore size, permeability
Primary roads and rail roads Repeated loading
strength, elongation
Reinforcement

Retaining walls , Reinforcement

Strength
Embankment, and Creep
Soil fabric friction
foundations Separation

Reinforcement Strength
Unpaved roads Repeated loading
Separation Elongation

Erosion protection Filtration Pore site

Rapid change in
Drainage Permeability strength
water level
Seepage control Reinforcement abrasion

Drainage
Soil drainage Clogging Pore size
Filtration

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Stress- strain modulus = slope of stress –strain curve

Et =Initial tangent modulus

Eot =Offset tangent modulus

Es=Secant modulus at particular strain

Major applications

1. Embankments over very soft soils

2. Unpaved road supports
3. Retaining walls
4. Slope stabilization

1. Embankments

Embankment can fail in a multitude of ways involving excessive settlement and lateral spreading,
with or without single or multiple failure surfaces and surface bulging becoming apparent.
Geotextiles provides restraint against lateral deformation and assist in load distribution on the soft
subsoil.
Stability analysis of a reinforced embankment will have to take the following modes of failure

(a) Block sliding on the geotextiles:

A vertical crack or other type of failure through the embankment isolates a block of soil which
slides outward on geotextiles .

A simple analysis would assume horizontal active earth pressures pushing outward and soil fabric
friction resisting the process.

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uniform distribution of shear stress would imply tensile forces in the geotextiles which
increases linearly towards the center of the embankment .

Ea the center of the embankment

A minimum factor of safety of 1.5 w.r.t strength and a fabric strain limited to 10%

T req=1.5Tmax, Treq=Required fabric strength

Ereq=Tmax/Emax=10max, Ereq=modulus

b)Failure along a slip surface:

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 Slip surface is assumed to be circular either within the embankment or through the
geotextile
 Fabric provides an additional stabilizing force T at the point of intersection with the
failure surface.

Stabilizing moment due to the fabric

For circular failure surfaces , M=TY

Overall bearing failure: (Terzaghi’s or Hansen’s Bearing capacity)

 The bearing capacity of an embankment foundation is unaffected by a

geotextile contained within or just below the embankment.

 Overall bearing capacity could be improved if a mattress like reinforced surface

layer of larger extent is provided at the base of the embankment.

(c) Excessive settlement :

Due to consolidation of the sub soil the embankment undergoes large settlement and
the presence of the fabric may reduce differential settlement.

Because of the drainage effect of nonwoven fabrics consolidation of the subsoil may be
accelerated with a consequent gain in strength where deformation criteria require high
strength, high –modulus woven fabrics the drainage function may be provided by the
Geo-composites .
Edge reinforcement also helps to reduce erosion and may assist in the establishment of
vegetation.

2)Unpaved roads:

 Reinforcing action of geotextile can be used in unpaved roads for economic

advantages.
 Geotextiles also fulfill additional basic functions such as separation, filtration and
drainage.
 Nonwoven and woven fabrics are used in road construction.

Unpaved roads without fabric Hammit (1970) proposed a formula for determining the
thickness of aggregate required for unsurfaced roads and air fields so as to produce a
rut depth less than 3 - in (75mm). The design thickness is a function of the number of

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coverage N of an equivalent single wheel load and the tire contact area

Unpaved roads with Geotextiles:

 The placement of a fabric on soft subgrade appears to have the effect of

forcing a general shear failure where otherwise a local or punching type of

failure would occur. The beaming capacity factor increases from about 3
to 5 or more.

 The fabric provided restraint of the aggregate and the subgrade if placed at
their interface.

 Subsidence associated with wheel path rutting can develop tension in a fabric
built into road structure. This is the case with high-modulus fabrics with
sufficient soil fabric friction to develop an anchorage zone outside the loaded
area.

Rail Roads:

Geotextiles installed in the track bed are submitted to extreme conditions of cyclic
stress and seepage flow. Geotextiles directly contact with coarse ballast without
protective layers above and below, are subjected to significant abrasion and puncturing
which affects their filtration and reinforcement capacity

Laboratory tests and field observations confirm that heavy nonwovens perform better
than lighter nonwovens.

 Geotextiles are successful in solving difficult track foundation

 Economic gains and better long term track performance could be achieved by
protective layer above /or below the installed fabric

With particular reference to road and embankment construction proper management of

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a geotextile reinforced soil project requires the followling actions.

 Site preparation :- Level site and remove obstructions such as sharp tree stumps
and boulders, minimize disturbance of the subgrade where soil structure, roots
in the ground and light vegetation may provide additional bearing strength.
 Equipment selection:- use low ground pressure and small dump trucks for initial
stage of construction pay attention to ground disturbance caused by turning
equipment and dumping procedures.
 Fabric placement :-Roll rather than drag geotextile into place giving attention to
the isotropic properties of the fabric (i.e. warp direction parallel to road
alignment). Eliminate wrinkles, tension fabric and provide edge anchorage for
increased membrane action in cures, cutting and sewing of or overlapping may
be necessary.

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