Chapter 2

Plant Design
2
3
 4

2.1 Basics of plant layout

Plant layout
a plan of, or the act of planning an optimum arrangement
of industrial facilities, including personnel, operating
equipment, storage space, materials handling equipment
and all other supporting services along with the design of
the best structure to contain these facilities.
 5

Need for layout development :

•to start a new product,

•to change the product design,

•to reduce the cost;

And when
•the market demand changes,

•the plant, the product, the building become obsolete,

•accidents occur frequently.

the
 working environment is poor.
 Developing Simulating Layout Problems
Product Market
Design New Obsolete Poor
Market Cost
Demand Worker
Change product Facility Relocation Reduction
Change Environment

Move to Rearrange Minor

Build New Existing changes
existing
Plant Plant
Plant

Class of layout problems

Relation between causes and classes of layout problems

Cause and result occur very frequently

Cause and result occur less frequently
Cause and result occur occasionally
No line Cause and result occur very seldom 6
 7

 The resulting solutions involve

• planning a completely new plant,

• re-arranging a presently installed layout,

• making adjustments to existing layout.

 8

The objectives of a good study of plant layout are:

•ensure effective space utilization,
•minimize the cost of material handling (internal transports),
•foresee future developments of the plant according to a rational master
plan,
•improve workers convenience as well as safety and create job satisfaction,
and
•avoid unnecessary capital investment.
 9

Types of Layout

1.Product Layout
2.Process Layout
3.Fixed-point Layout
 10

1. Product Layout:
 only one product or one type of product is produced in a
given area.

 The product must be standardized and manufactured in

large quantities in order to justify the product layout.
11
 12

Advantages :
• lower total material handling cost,
• lower total production time,
• less work in process,
• greater incentive for groups of workers to raise level of performance,
• less floor area required per unit of production and
• greater simplicity of production control, fewer control records needed
and lower accounting cost.
 13

Used When:
 one or few standard products are to be produced,
 large volume of production of each item over a considerable time
is needed,
 minimum of inspection is required during sequence of operations,
 one machine is always used for one purpose.
 14

2. Process Layout
•particularly useful where low volume is required.

•Similar equipment and similar operations are grouped together in

the process or functional layout.
15
 16

Some of the Advantages of Process Layout are:

•less duplication of equipment, hence lower investment cost,
•greater flexibility of production,
•better and more efficient supervision,
•greaterincentive for individual workers to raise level of
performance,
•better control of complicated or precision processes,
 17

Process Layout is Used when

many types or styles of products are on special order ,
relatively low volume of production on individual items is needed,
many inspections are required during a sequence of operations,
high proportion of very heavy equipment or equipment requiring
special treatment exist,
materials or products become too large or too heavy to permit bulk or
continuous flow and
one machine is used for different operations.
 18

3. Fixed-Position Layout
In this type of layout, the material or major component remains in a
fixed location, and tools, machinery, men as well as other pieces of
material are brought to this location.
 19

 Typical examples are ship building, construction

industries, aircraft building and bench work exercises.

 This type of layout is not frequently used in industrial

enterprises. For this reason we are not going to look into
its advantage and disadvantages.
 20

2.2 Study of plant layout

• The solution of any size and type of plant layout

problems could be facilitated by using a systematic and
logical approach.

• An early pioneer in this area was Richard Muther,

developer of the Systematic Layout Planning (SLP)
methodology.
 INPUT ACTIVITIES
AND DATA

Flow of Activity

ABSTRACTION
21
Material Relationship

(ANALYSIS)
Relationship
Diagram

Space Space
Required Available

Space
Computerized
Relationship
Layout Planning

SEARCH
Diagram

Modifying Practical
Consideration limitation

Layout X Layout Z
Layout Y

Layout

EVALUATION
Selected

Detail a
Detail b

Systematic layout Planning Procedure Detail c

 22

The SLP procedure leads the planner through

1. Abstraction (Analysis):
•Gathering appropriate information and analyzing the flow of
materials and the activity relationships to form a relationship
diagram.

•Space considerations when combined with the relationship

diagram develop the space relationship diagram.
 23

• There are two basic elements on which every layout problem

rests Product (or material) and Quantity (or volume).

• These two elements underline all other features or conditions

directly or indirectly in layout work.

 24

S. Support services
P. Product-Material
With what support will
What is to be produced
production be backed
R. Routing-Process
How will it (they) be produced

T. Time
Q. Quantity-Volume When will it be produced
How much of each
Item will be produced H
W Y

Key PQRST to unlock layout problems

 25

2. Search (for possible solution):

is the phase in which alternative layouts are developed by
examining the space relationship diagram under modifying
consideration such as materials handling, storage facilities, site
conditions and surroundings, building types, personnel
convenience, etc., and practical limitations.
 26

 The systematic approach of generating possible alternatives

of plant layout is conducted by taking in to consideration:

I. type of layout,

II. the possible internal transport systems and

III. the working condition.

 27

I. Type of Layout

It is necessary to determine which type of layout to select,

product (line) or process (functional) layout.

In addition to the selection of type of layout, it is also

important to fix the arrangement of machines.
 28

Q
Q A
Product α P= Product
Product β Q=Quantity
B
Product y

P P

P-Q Diagram
 29

 In region A there are few types of products but in a great

quantity. For these products it is advisable to have product layout.

 In region C there are very many products in small quantity.

Hence, preferred to have process layout.

 For products in region B (medium types of products and medium

quantity) the case has to be studied closely so as to be able which
layout to select.
 30

Machine arrangements
•The form of an industrial building is mainly dependent on

– machine arrangements and

– the advancement of a work piece.

•The usual forms are shown.

 31

a) IN PARALLEL

a) IN SERIES

a) COMBINED

Examples of Machine Arrangements

32
 33

II. The Possible Internal Transport System

•After considering the type of work piece advancement, the

production capacity and the machineries required, it is
necessary to examine the volume and weight of materials
that has to be transported from one machine to the other, or
from one department to the other.
 34

• A good study of internal transport system may boil down to

the following major benefits:
 Reduce costs (by utilizing space to better advantage, increasing
productivity and making few number of effective movements)
 Reduce waste (by eliminating damage to material during the
handling process and maintaining proper control over in-and-out
of stock handling process)
 35

 Improve working conditions (by providing safer working

conditions and reducing worker fatigue)

 Improve the efficiency of the plant (by improving

location of storage facilities, improving routing and
increasing productivity.)
 36

• The available computer aided layout algorithms fall into, either

 improvement, or

 construction routine categories.

 37

Improvement routine:
The basic approach is to find a suboptimum design by making
improvements in sequential fashion.
 38

 First, a given layout has to be evaluated to determine what the effect

will be if department locations are interchanged.

 If improvements can be made by making pairwise exchanges, the

exchange producing the greatest improvement can be adopted.

 The process continues until no improvement is possible by pairwise

exchanges.
 39

The objective function to be evaluated is:

n n
TC =   W ij C ij Dij
i -1 j -i

TC = Total internal transport cost

 Cij = Cost of internal transport, per unit distance per unit weight, for
material movement between department i and j

 Wij =Weight of material transported, per unit time, from department i to j

 Dij = Distance from department i to j

 40

• The routine accepts input data of Wij and Cij in the form of a FROM

- TO chart. It may also accept Dij in the form of a FROM - TO

charter, or it may accept the co-ordinates of the work centers.

• A FROM - TO chart is a square matrix whose elements represent

flow or distance between departments.
 41

FROM - TO chart

To 2
From 1 3 4 ... j ... n
1
2
= Wij x C ij x D
3 ij

4
...

i
...

n
 42

• The chart is constructed by listing the departments down the left

hand column and then across the top in the same order.

• The departments on the left are the originating (FROM)

departments and the ones at the top are the receiving (TO) ones.
 43

Construction routine:

•This routine constructs layouts without the need for an existing

(preliminary) layout.
 44

• Basically

 find the starting point or initial activity placement and then

 add the remaining activity areas in accordance with logical

rule.

• Thus, the routine accepts qualitative information from a

relationship chart with closeness value numerically rated.
 45

 A relationship chart is a triangular matrix whose elements

represent the relationships among plant layout departments.

 Letter codes are also used to represent desirable or undesirable

levels of closeness between departments.
 46

 Six standard letter codes are used to show closeness relationships.

• "A" indicates an absolutely necessary closeness relationship;

• "E" indicates especially important;

• "I" important;

• "O" ordinary;

• "U" unimportant;

• "X" indicates a not desirable closeness relationship.

 Although the letter codes are standard, the ratings reflect the user's own reasons for assigning the letter codes.
 47

 The relationship chart and the numerically weighted ratings,

assigned to the closeness values, are the basis for the order and
placement in which departments enter the layout.

 The ratings assigned for A,E,I,O,U and X are used to calculate the
Total Closeness Rating (TCR) for each department.
 48

TCRi = 
j=1
V( r ij ); i = 1 ... m

where
 TCRj =Total Closeness Rating for department;

 V(rij) =Numerical value assigned to the closeness value for department i and j.
 n = Total number of departments.
 49

DEPT.

2
...

k
...

The relation between the K th and the

...

Mth dept. can have any closeness value

(A,E,I,O,U or X)
n
 50

• The first department to be placed in the layout is assigned by taking

the department with the greatest TCR.

• Next, the relationship chart is scanned to see if there is any

department that has an A value with the department already placed.

• If no A value exists, a check is made for E value, and if no E value

appears, a check is made for I value, followed by O value.
 51

• If ties develop, the department having the greatest TCR is

chosen.

• This process is continually used until finally all departments

are placed in the layout.
 52

III. Working Condition

•Proper working conditions are considered important by

management because they increase production effectiveness.
Employee working conditions are influenced by many factors, over
which the employee has very little or no control.
 53

A good layout considers the factors influencing working

conditions.
 LIGHTING
 AIR CONDITIONING
 NOISE
 USE OF COLOR
 SPACE REQUIREMENTS
 PASSAGE IN AN INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
 SAFETY
 54

c. Selection
The most efficient general method of evaluating layout
alternatives is termed factor analysis.

It follows the engineering concept of breaking down the

problem into its elements and analyzing each one.
 55

1. Advantages versus Disadvantages

Listing in columns or on sheets placed adjacent to each other all the

advantages of each alternative, below them are listed the disadvantages.
 easiest of the three evaluation methods

 least accurate (used more for preliminary screening out of rough

alternatives)

 surprisingly effective and certainly is not a time consuming procedure.

 56

2. Cost Comparisons

establishing the total factory cost of a product and investment for

machine tools, a comparison between alternatives is possible.
 A more economical approach
 57

3. Factor Analysis

The overall desires of what is wanted in layout being planned are

broken down into so-called factors or considerations.

They may also be termed criteria or objectives.

 58

 Follows a list of the most commonly involved factors or

considerations; not in order of importance.

(ease of future expansion, adaptability and versatility, flexibility of layout, flow of

materials effectiveness, materials handling effectiveness, storage effectiveness,
space utilization, effectiveness of supporting service integration, safety and
housekeeping)
 59

Procedure for evaluating alternatives by Factor analysis

A.Identify the plan to be evaluated
 Select the alternatives that are to be evaluated.
 Have a visual plan, or sketch of each layout in front of each rater
clearly understood by him, during the evaluation process.
 Identify each visual plans by letters A, B, C, etc. Also give it a
brief three-to-five word description.
 60

B. Establish the factors or considerations

 Establish what factors, consideration criteria or objectives are

involved, or wanted from the layout.

 Define the factors so that they are clearly understood.

 Avoid duplication of terms and congestion as to meaning.

 61

C. Arrange a rating sheet.

 List the factors or considerations vertically on the lines of a sheet of

paper.

 Arrange the identification letter for each alternative plant horizontally

in columns across the same sheet.

 Leave room for adequate reference notes.

 62

D. Determine the relative importance of each factor.

 Determine the weight or importance value of each factor relative to

the other factors.

 Record by whom the weight values are determined.

 63

E. Rate each factor for alternative plans.

 Establish a rating code or system.

 Rate each element on the extent to which it achieves, or affords the

ends represented by the factor in question - - - rating each layout
exactly as it is planned.

 Rate all the plans for one factor; then take the next factor.

 Record by whom the rating(s) was (were) made.

 64

F. Calculate weighted value and total.

 Translate the rating symbols into numerical values and multiply the
weight value by each rating number.

 Total the weighted rating values for each alternative plan by adding
the respective columns.

 Record by whom the extension and tally were made.

 Take actions as appropriate, based on the totals.

65
 66

END
OF
CHAPTER 2!!
 67

LIGHTING
Good lighting facilitates accuracy and ease of seeing. A lighting
system that aids these two demands means that the worker is able to see
the critical details required in his job without excessive visual strain.
 68

 The lighting fixtures are described according to the way they

distribute light.
• Direct lighting 0-10% of flux directed to the roof
• Semi direct 10-40% " " "
• General diffuse 40-60% " " “
• Semi indirect 60-90% " " “
• Indirect 90-110% " " "
 69

TYPE OF WORK ILLUMINATION VALUE IN FLUX

 Store and rarely accessible
working places 100 - 200
 Rough work (Brewery) 200 - 500
 Medium work (automobile assembly) 500 - 1000
 Precise work (wool work) 500 – 1000
 Fine work (Radio and TV assembly) 1000 - 2000
 Very fine work (controlling wool work) 1000 - 2000
 Working on a very small pieces
(watch assembly) 2000 - 7500
 70

AIR CONDITIONING

Air conditioning is used for many plants to control contamination

by dust, bacteria and toxic gases in addition to air temperature and
humidity.
Air conditioning is a system which provides an atmosphere
comfortable to the human being and maintain an atmospheric
environment demanded by a manufacturing process or storage of
products.
 71

NOISE

 A wide variety of sound exists in industry. Continuous exposure to

high noise levels frequently results in temporary or even permanent
loss of hearing.
 But there is no clear cut line to indicate how much noise results in
hearing loss.
 The following are standard measurements for different sound
sources in decibels:
 72

SOURCE dB
- Hydraulic process at one meter 140
- Automobile horn push at one meter 120
- Automatic lathe at one meter 100
- Conversation at one meter 70
- Workshop (mechanical) 80
 73

The reduction of noise may be brought about by a variety of

methods. Some of these methods are:

Control of the noise at the source.

Isolation of the noise.

Use of baffles and sound absorbers.

Acoustical treatment.

Use of ear protection devices.

 74

USE OF COLOR

The objective of utilizing scientifically selected colors is to bring about a clear three dimensional vision.

Color codes have been developed for particular uses. The red, yellow and green of traffic lights is a well
known example of color coding.
Red - danger; stop
Yellow - caution
Green - safety equipment
It is advisable to paint the roof of the industrial building with a minimum reflection index of 0.7, the walls
0.5, and the floor 0.25.
 75

Different colors have different psychological effects.

 Red - Hot and heavy, exciting, stimulating.
 Orange - Hot, exciting and stimulating less than red.
 Yellow - Hot, exciting lovely.
 Green - Fresh and light, pacific.
 Blue - Light, pacific.
 Violet - Light, loneliness.
 White - Cold, brilliant (seems to increase volume).
 Black - Hot (seems to decrease volume) depressing.
 76

SPACE REQUIREMENTS

The layout man often finds himself involved in work space arrangement; at
any rate, he must determine the floor space that will be required by an operator.

The study of floor space needed considers the following points:

 While at work, the operator's arms and hands should move as easily as
possible and he ought to reduce, to the minimum the movement of his
shoulders and his body from one position to another.
77
 78

 Fixed posts for utensils and materials should be assured.

 The disposition of utensils, materials and organs of maneuver near and in front of
the operator.

 Avoidance of the standing operator wherever possible. The study of the working
area should consider a proper and comfortable position for the legs of the operator
in an armchair or on a stool.

 When the operator is transporting material, or when he is in a position to push, or

pull he should do it in such a way that:

 he is in an equilibrium position and he applies the possible minimum force to

produce the effect.
79
 80

PASSAGE IN AN INDUSTRIAL BUILDING

From the very beginning of the study, one has to determine the corridors
within the building. Their width is determined according to the internal transport
system selected and according to the clearance needed for passages.
Principal corridors which normally start from one end of the building and end
at the other end are 3 to 5 meters wide.
Corridors within the department:
1. passage for one person 60 cm,
2. passage for two persons 120 cm,
3. passage for three persons 170 cm.
 81

SAFETY

A good plant layout should consider the safety of all personnel.

Lack of adequate storage space which is beyond the control of the

foreman, can lead to unsafe practices in the storage of materials.
 82

 Some of the safety hazards to be watched for in plant layout are:

 inadequate passage,
 insufficient storage space allowance for safe handling procedures,
 insufficient handling equipment capacity,
 floor load capacity,
 floor obstructions,
 slippery finish floors,
 inadequate exits,
 inadequate stairs, ramps and ladders,
 inaccessible fire extinguisher and first aid boxes
 unguarded moving parts of equipment ,
 workers located under the above hazards and
 improper ventilation for removal of dangerous or toxic gases.
83
 84

 The layout man should give due consideration to the problem of

safety.

 Overlooking the problem will lead to

 lower morale of the workers,

 lower productivity and

 heavy accident liability costs.