PRACTICAL GUIDE

 In an experiment investigating the effect of one

variable on another,
 the independent variable is the one that you
change
 and the dependent variable is the one that you
measure. All
 other variables should be controlled (kept
constant).
 It is very important to understand the
difference between experimental errors and
'mistakes'.
 A mistake is something that you do incorrectly,
such as misreading the scale on a thermometer,
or taking a reading at the wrong time, or not
emptying a graduated pipette fully.
 Do not refer to these types of mistake when
you are asked to comment on experimental
errors.
 Once you have collected, tabulated and
displayed your results, you can use them to
draw a conclusion. When you are thinking
about a conclusion, look right back to the start
of your experiment where you were told (or
you decided) what you were to investigate.
 It is always best to design and construct your
results table before you begin your experiment, so
that you can write your readings directly into it
as you take them.
 It is important to keep a record of data whilst
carrying out practical work. Tables should
have clear headings with units indicated using
a forward slash before the unit.
 The uncertainty in a measurement using a
particular instrument is no smaller than plus or
minus half of the smallest division or greater.
For example, a temperature measured with a
thermometer is likely to have an uncertainty of
±0.5 °C if the graduations are 1 °C apart.
Data points
 Data points should be marked with a cross.

Both × and + marks are acceptable, but care

should be taken that data points can be seen
against the grid.
 GRAPH
Scales and origins
 Students should attempt to spread the data points on

a graph as far as possible

Students should consider:
 • the maximum and minimum values of each variable

 • the size of the graph paper

 • whether 0.0 should be included as a data point

 • how to draw the axes without using difficult scale

markings (eg multiples of 3, 7, 11 etc)

 • In exams, the plots should cover at least half of the

grid supplied for the graph.

 LINFITES OF BEST
 good rule of thumb is to make sure that there are
as many points on one side of the line as the other.
 Often the line should pass through, or very close
to, the majority of plotted points.
 Lines of best fit should be continuous and drawn
with a thin pencil that does not obscure the points
below
 In presenting results graphically, anomalous
points should be plotted but ignored when the
line of best fit is being decided.
 HISTOGRAM
 As with a line graph and scatter graph, a
histogram is used to show the distribution of a
continuous variable. In this case, the data for
the dependent variable are arranged into non-
overlapping groups.
 In a histogram, the bars touch.
 BAR CHARTS
 Line graphs and histograms are used when the
data are continuous. In contrast, bar charts are
used when the data are discontinuous because
they are:
• categoric - only certain values can exist (eg
reading at week 1, reading at week 2 etc) or

• nominal – there is no ordering of the

categories (eg red flowers, pink flowers and
white flowers of Antirrhinum).
 Since these data are not continuous, the
intervals on the x-axis should show this and,
unlike a histogram, the rectangles must not
touch.
 BIOLOGICAL DRAWING
 The purpose of drawing in the teaching of Biology is the
development of observational skills.
 A student must look very closely at a specimen in order to
draw it accurately and must have sound knowledge of the
component structures in order to choose what to draw and
what to omit from the drawing.
 Drawings should always be in pencil. Fine detail cannot be
represented accurately unless the pencil has a sharp point.
 The outlines of any structures should be drawn but there
should be no colouring or shading. The relative sizes of the
structures drawn should be accurate. Construction lines or
frames could be used to solve this problem.
Common errors in biological drawing
 The table shows errors that commonly occur

when students begin to practise drawings of

biological material. Each would reduce the
value of the drawing and result in loss of credit
being awarded. Most result from lack of
attention or care and are easily solved.