BIOLOGICAL

EFFECTS AND
HAZARDS OF
RADIATION
PRESENTERS:
NANKINGA JANE
ONENCHAN CLIVE
Outline

 Introduction
 Mechanisms through which x rays cause damage
 Classification of biological effects
 Factors that determine biological effects of radiation
Introduction

 Radiobiology is the study of effects of ionizing radiation on living systems.

 Free radicals are atoms or molecules having an unpaired electron in its electron
valence shell.
Mechanisms
1. Direct effect
 When energy of a photon or secondary electron ionizes biologic macromolecules
 Biologic molecules absorb energy from ionizing radiation forming unstable free radicals

2. Indirect effect
When a photon is absorbed by water in an organism, ionizing some of the water and the remaining
ions form free radicals. Here, hydrogen and hydroxyl free radicals are produced.
Classification of biological effects
 Can be classified as;
i. Somatic deterministic effects
ii. Somatic stochastic effects
iii. Genetic stochastic effects

Or classified as;
iv. Deterministic effects
v. Stochastic effects
 Somatic deterministic effects:
This is damage to a person exposed that will definitely result from a specific high dose of radiation

 Somatic stochastic effects: Effects that may develop

 Genetic stochastic effects: Radiation to reproductive organs causing damage to DNA of the sperm
or egg cells
Deterministic effects on cells
Chromosome aberrations
 Are observed in irradiated cells at the time of mitosis when DNA condenses to form
chromosomes
 They include;
i. Chromatid aberration (in G2/mid and late stages)
ii. Chromosome aberration (in G1 and early S stage)
iii. Dicentric formation
iv. Translocations
v. Acentric fragment
Change in DNA Mechanisms of reproductive death

 Breakage of one or both DNA strands  DNA damage

 Cross-linking of DNA strands within the helix to
other DNA strands or to proteins  Bystander effect

 Change or loss of a base  Apoptosis

 Disruption of hydrogen bonds between the DNA

strands
Deterministic effects on tissues and
organs
Short term effects Long term effects
 Effects seen in the first days or weeks of  Effects seen months or years after
exposure exposure

 Determined by sensitivity of the tissue’s  Due to loss of parenchymal cells with

parenchymal cells. replacement by the fibrous connective
tissue

 Result from high doses of radiation more

than 100 rad
Modifying factors

 Dose
 Dose rate
 Oxygen
 Linear energy transfer
Radiation effect on oral tissues
Radiation effects to embryos and
fetuses Late effects

 Embryonic cells are more radiosensitive  Growth and development impairment

because they are relatively  Cataracts
undifferentiated and rapidly mitotic
 Life span shortening

Effects include;
 Small birth size
 Cataracts
 Genital and skeletal malformations
 Microphthalmia

These effects have a threshold dose of 0.1 to

0.2Gy
Deterministic effects of whole body irradiation
Management:
Acute radiation syndrome (ARS): collection of  Antibiotics indicated when the granulocyte falls
signs and symptoms experienced by persons after
acute whole body exposure to radiation.
 Fluid and electrolyte replacement
Stages of ARS
 Prodromal period  Whole blood transfusion used to treat anemia, and
platelets to treat thrombocytopenia
 Latent stage
 Manifest illness stage
 Bone marrow grafts are indicated between
 Recovery or death stage
identical twins
Cont.’
 Hematopoietic syndrome: occurs with whole-body exposure of 2 to 7 Gy that causes injury to
hematopoietic stem cells of the bone marrow and spleen

 Gastrointestinal syndrome: occurs with whole body exposure of 7 to 15 Gy which causes injury
to the gastrointestinal system in addition to the hematopoietic damage

 CVS and CNS syndrome: occurs when exposure in excess of 50 Gy which usually causes death
in 1 to 2 days
Stochastic effects
 They result from sublethal changes in DNA of individual cells.
 Consequences of such damage is carcinogenesis and heritable effects

 Carcinogenesis occurs through modification of DNA by radiation which acts as a

promoter, stimulating cells to multiply and also converts premalignant cells to
malignant.

 Heritable effects are seen in offspring of irradiated individuals due to damage to the
genetic material of reproductive cells
 DETERMINISTIC EFFECTS STOCHASTIC EFFECTS

cause Killing of a large number of cells Sublethal damage to DNA

Threshold dose Yes: sufficient cell killing required No: even one photon can cause
to cause a clinical response damage

Severity of effect and dose Severity of effects is proportional to Severity of effects is independent of
the dose the dose

Probability of damage Is independent of the dose Frequency of effect is proportional

to the dose

Examples Mucositis resulting from Radiation-induced cancer

radiotherapy of oral cavity
Factors that determine biological effects of
radiation
 Nature of tissue radiated
 Area irradiated
 Rate of dose
 Fractionization
 Age of patient
 Latent period
 Recovery power of tissue
 Type of cell
 Stage of development of tissue
 Type of cell
 Oxygenation
 Tissue threshold
References

1. Oral radiology principles and interpretation 6th edition by Stuart C White pages
18- 30
2. Radiology for the dental profession 9th edition by Mosby Elsevier pages 71-85
3. Essentials of dental radiography and radiology 3rd edition by Eric Whaites pages
29-32