REASONING

AND
THE SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
04 REASONING AND THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
ASSOCIATED LECTURE
VIDEO
Pre-recorded lecture for this
set of slides:
https://youtu.be/RsL4qje2JOk
KEY CONCEPTS COVERED IN THESE SLIDES
Reasoning
Valid argument
Logical reasoning
Premise
Deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning and the scientific method
Inductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning and the scientific method
Abductive reasoning
Abductive reasoning and the scientific method
Quantitative reasoning
Scientific reasoning
THE
SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
WHAT IS REASONING?
REASONING AND THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
TL;DR CRASH COURSE ON REASONING
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NKEhdsnKKHs
TL;DR CRASH COURSE ON REASONING
• https://youtu.be/-wrCpLJ1XAw
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 1

REASONING

Reasoning is the action of constructing thoughts into a valid argument.

This is something you probably do every day. When you make a

decision, you are using reasoning, taking different thoughts and
making those thoughts into reasons why you should go with one
option over the other options available.
04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 2

REASONING
When you construct an argument,
that argument will be either valid
or invalid. In relation to science, A
valid argument is reasoning that
is comprehensive on the
foundation of logic or fact.
04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 2

Reasoning
THE ACTION OF
THINKING
ABOUT
SOMETHING IN
A LOGICAL,
SENSIBLE WAY.
COMEDIC INTERLUDE  ARGUMENT - MONTY
PYTHON
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ohDB5gbtaEQ
04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 3

LOGICAL
REASONING
the process of using a
rational, systematic series
of steps based on sound
procedures and given
statements to arrive at a
conclusion.
04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 3

LOGICAL REASONING
Logical thinking is the process in
which one uses reasoning
consistently to come to a
conclusion. Problems or situations
that involve logical thinking call
for structure, for relationships
between facts, and for chains of
reasoning that “make sense.”
LOGICAL REASONING 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 4

• the basis of all logical thinking is sequential

thought.
• This process involves taking the important ideas,
facts, and conclusions involved in a problem and
arranging them in a chain-like progression that
takes on a meaning in and of itself.
• To think logically is to think in steps.
LOGICAL
REASONING
AND THE
SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 5

TYPES OF LOGICAL REASONING

Today, logical reasoning is the umbrella term for at least three different types of
reasoning.
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 6

DEDUCTIVE REASONING
In general terms, deductive reasoning
means using a given set of facts or
data to deduce other facts from by
reasoning logically.
Deductive reasoning can be used to
prove that these new facts are valid.
04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 6 & 7

DEDUCTIVE REASONING
For instance the classic example:
Major premise: All humans are mortal
Minor premise: Socrates is human
Conclusion: Socrates is mortal

Premise: a previous statement

or proposition from which
another is inferred or follows as
a conclusion.
"if the premise is true, then the
conclusion must be true"
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 6

DEDUCTIVE REASONING

premise 1: B = A
premise 2: A = F
premise 3: F = D
Conclusion: D = B
VALID
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 6

DEDUCTIVE REASONING

premise 1: B = G
premise 2: A = F
premise 3: F = D
Conclusion: D = B
INVALID VALID
 MORE EXAMPLES

ALL SQUARES ARE WHEN IT RAINS THE ALL TREES HAVE TRUNKS.
RECTANGLES. TREES GET WET. AN OAK TREE IS A TREE.
ALL RECTANGLES HAVE THE TREES ARE WET THIS THEREFORE, DEDUCTIVE
FOUR SIDES. MORNING, SO IT RAINED REASONING TELLS YOU
DEDUCTIVE LOGIC LAST NIGHT. THAT THE OAK TREE HAS
THEREFORE TELLS YOU A TRUNK.
THAT ALL SQUARES HAVE
FOUR SIDES.
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 6
DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
EXAMPLE
Cogito ergo sum  “I think,
therefor I am”
- René Descartes

is a deductive argument.
If the premise (“I think”) is true, then
the conclusion (“I am”) is inescapable.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum
Descartes asserted that the very
act of doubting one's own
existence served—at minimum—
as proof of the reality of one's
own mind; there must be a
thinking entity—in this case the
self—for there to be a thought.
COMEDIC INTERLUDE –
DEDUCTIVE REASONING AND
WITCHES
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_lu5_5Od7WY
DEDUCTIVE REASONING AND
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

• During the scientific process, deductive reasoning

is used to reach a logical true/valid conclusion. 
• The scientific method uses deduction to test
hypotheses
• The steps of the scientific method act like an
individual premise
• Start of argument  Next Step  Conclusion
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 8

INDUCTIVE REASONING

Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive

reasoning. Inductive reasoning makes broad
generalizations from specific observations. Basically,
there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the
data. 
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 8

INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive reasoning is looking for a
pattern or a trend and then
generalizing it. When you generalize
and extrapolate the information, you
don’t know for sure if this trend will
continue, but you assume it will. You
therefore don’t know for sure that a
conclusion based on inductive
reasoning will be 100% true.
BASIC EXAMPLE
“The coin I pulled from the
bag is a penny. That coin is
a penny. A third coin from
the bag is a penny.
Therefore, all the coins in
the bag are pennies.”
04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 8 & 9

INDUCTIVE REASONING
A famous hypothesis is:

‘all swans are white’

hypothesis: a supposition or proposed
explanation made on the basis of
limited evidence as a starting point for
further investigation.
04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 8

INDUCTIVE REASONING
This conclusion was taken from a
large amount of observations
without observing any black
swans and consequently logically
assumes that black swans don’t
exist.
04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 8

INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive reasoning is therefore a
risky form of logical reasoning
since the conclusion can as easily
be incorrect when, looking at the
swans example, a black swan is
spotted.
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 8

INDUCTIVE REASONING
Another common example of inductive reasoning used in
actual aptitude testing are number sequences. Try to
determine the pattern, generalize and extrapolate to find the
next number in the series.
6, 9, 12, 15, ?
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 8

INDUCTIVE REASONING

The logical answer to this trend seems to be18

but you can’t ever be 100% sure, maybe the number represent
days or hours or something weird that you don’t expect and
which causes extrapolating to give different results.
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 8

INDUCTIVE REASONING

Perhaps the most common form of inductive reasoning tests consist of

non-verbal figure sequences and are also known as abstract reasoning
tests. They follow the same methodology as mention earlier, find the
pattern, and extrapolate to find the next figure.
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 8

INDUCTIVE REASONING
That is what inductive reasoning is all about, looking at the given data, making a
generalization, and extrapolate the pattern.

In all the previous examples, there is a sense of a generalized judgment, which may or
may not turn out to be true.

Whereas in deductive reasoning, there is no judgment. The conclusions are mostly

true, based on the given situation.
INDUCTIVE REASONING AND
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

• Inductive reasoning has its place in the scientific

method.
• Scientists use it to form hypotheses and theories.
• Deductive reasoning allows them to apply the
theories to specific situations.
Question Hypothesis Prediction
EXAMPLES OF
How does the Larger animals of the same If I let a 70-pound dog HYPOTHESES
size of a dog species expend more

affect how
energy than smaller
animals of the same type.
and a 30-pound dog eat as
much food as they want, AND
much food it
To get the energy their
bodies need, the larger
then the 70-pound dog
will eat more than the 30- PREDICTIONS
animals eat more food. pound dog.
eats?

Plants need many types

Does of nutrients to grow.
If I add fertilizer to the soil
of some tomato seedlings,
fertilizer Fertilizer adds those but not others, then the
seedlings that got fertilizer
make a plant nutrients to the soil, will grow taller and have
thus allowing plants to more leaves than the non-
grow bigger? grow more. fertilized ones.
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REVIEW AND
MORE EXAMPLES (EVERY DAY EXAMPLES)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BwtCScUoL_w
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question
10

ABDUCTIVE REASONING
• Another form of scientific reasoning that doesn't fit in with
inductive or deductive reasoning is abductive. Abductive
reasoning usually starts with an incomplete set of
observations and proceeds to the likeliest possible
explanation for the group of observations.
04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question
10
ABDUCTIVE
REASONING
conclusions drawn here are based
on probabilities. In abductive
reasoning it is presumed that the
most plausible conclusion is also
the correct one.
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question
10

ABDUCTIVE REASONING
Abductive reasoning is often used by doctors who make a
diagnosis based on test results and by jurors who make
decisions based on the evidence presented to them.
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question
10
EXAMPLE
For example, a person walks into their living
room and finds torn up papers all over the
floor. The person's dog has been alone in the
room all day. The person concludes that the
dog tore up the papers because it is the most
likely scenario. Now, the person's sister may
have brought by his niece and she may have
torn up the papers, or it may have been done
by the landlord, but the dog theory is the
more likely conclusion.
ABDUCTIVE REASONING
AND THE SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
• Abductive reasoning is useful for forming
hypotheses to be tested.
• Also useful during the analysis phase when trying
to draw conclusions
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 11

QUANTITATIVE
REASONING
Quantitative reasoning (QR) is the
application of basic mathematics
skills, such as algebra, to the
analysis and interpretation of real-
world quantitative information in
the context of a discipline or an
interdisciplinary problem to draw
conclusions that are relevant to
solving problems.

https://www.aacu.org/peerreview/2014/summer/elrod
WHAT IS QUANTITATIVE REASONING?
FROM A KIDS PERSPECTIVE
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TlgxXgIOeY4
SMALL EXAMPLE

Three girls each poured 9 glasses of juice. How many glasses of juice were
poured?
A. 9 glasses
B. 12 glasses
C. 18 glasses
D. 27 glasses
 EXAMPLES

• Use of Deductive and Quantitative reasoning

• If you have a prescription for 5,000 mg of medicine, and upon getting
it filled, the dosage reads 5 g of medicine, did the pharmacist make a
mistake?
 EXAMPLES

1. Can not compare 5,000 mg to 5 g directly because they are not in

the same unit so the numbers do not relate
2. I need to convert one of the numbers to the unit of the other number
to solve the problem
mg  g or g  mg
 Just
Text Symbol Power Power
exa E 1018 18
    1017 17

EXAMPLES     1016 16
peta P 1015 15
    1014 14
    1013 13
tera T 1012 12
    1011 11
    1010 10
3. 5000 mg  ? g ( Smaller  Larger ) giga
 
G
 
109
108
9
8
    107 7
I will need to move the decimal place 3 places to the mega M 106 6
    105 5

Left  
kilo
 
k
104
103
4
3
hecto h 102 2
deca da 101 1
(none) (none) 100 0
5000 mg  5.000 g deci d 10−1 -1
-2
centi c 10−2
milli m 10−3 -3
    10-4 -4
    10-5 -5
micro μ 10−6 -6
    10-7 -7
    10-8 -8
nano n 10−9 -9
 EXAMPLES
• If you have a prescription for 5,000 mg of medicine, and upon getting it
filled, the dosage reads 5 g of medicine, did the pharmacist make a mistake?
• Major premise: If the to quantities are the same then they did not make a
mistake
Minor premise: 5000 mg = 5.000 g
• Conclusion: They did not make a mistake
QUANTITATIVE REASONING AND
STATISTICS
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 12
SCIENTIFIC AND QUANTITATIVE
REASONING
Both scientific and quantitative
reasoning are related to problem
solving, although they both need
additional specific skills
Scientific reasoning can also be
thought of as logical thinking. It
might involve observation or
assessment of information to
arrive at a generalised conclusion,
or may involve defining and then
testing a hypothesis to predict
specific results.
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question
SCIENTIFIC AND QUANTITATIVE 12

REASONING

Quantitative reasoning requires Good numeracy skills are

you to think critically and apply needed to be able to
basic mathematical and undertake effective
statistical skills to interpret data, quantitative reasoning.
draw conclusions, and solve
problems within a disciplinary or
interdisciplinary context.
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question
12

SCIENTIFIC REASONING
Scientific reasoning encompasses the reasoning and
problem-solving skills involved in generating, testing
and revising hypotheses or theories, and in the case of
fully developed skills, reflecting on the process of
knowledge acquisition and knowledge change that
results from such inquiry activities.
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question
12
SCIENTIFIC REASONING

Effective scientific reasoning requires both deductive, inductive, and

abductive skills.

Individuals must understand how to assess what is currently known or

believed, develop testable questions, test hypotheses, and draw
appropriate conclusions by coordinating empirical evidence and theory.
 04.1 Reasoning and the Scientific method – Question 12
SCIENTIFIC REASONING

Such reasoning also requires Further, it requires the

the ability to attend to
information systematically and
draw reasonable inferences
from patterns that are
observed.
ability to assess one’s
reasoning at each stage
in the process.
REASONING AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD