Chapter 1

Introduction to Research and Research Methods

What is Research and its significance ?

Ways of Knowing
The scientific method
Types of Research
Research Methods
Research Ethics and Integrity
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 Important questions to be answered

• What do you think constitute research?

• What do you feel is the purpose of research in your
field of study ?
• Do you think research is valuable in helping engineers do their
work effectively ?
• A site engineer who is visiting his/her friend site and
reflects on his/her working habit in the field in order to solve a
2
problem in his/her friend site involved in research?
4.1. What is research ?
 Any honest attempt to study a problem
systematically or to add to man’s knowledge
of a problem may be regarded as research.
 It refers to the organized, structured, and
purposeful attempt to gain knowledge about a
suspected relationship.
 the application of the scientific method and
a systematic process of collecting and
logically analyzing information (data)
 Research must be systematic and follow a
series of steps and a rigid standard
protocol. 3
4.2. Significance of Research
a. To those students –writing a master’s or Ph.D.
thesis, way to attain a high position in the
social structure;
b. To professionals in research methodology-
source of livelihood;
c. To philosophers and thinkers -the outlet for
new ideas and insights;
d. To literary men and women-the development
of new styles and creative work;
e. To analysts and intellectuals, research may
mean the generalizations of new theories.
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4.3. Purpose of Research
 The purpose of research is problem solving and
acquiring new knowledge
 In short, research is used for the purposes of:
 describing phenomena:-It find answers to the questions
“what, who and where”.

 explaining phenomena:- exploring the causes of the

occurrence of certain event. It find answers to the questions “why”.

 predicting phenomena:-generalizing about what will

happen in the future
 controlling phenomena:-intervene and subsequently
observe an expected result.

 comparing phenomena:-explore whether two or more

groups are similar or different on a certain behavior or vice
versa 5
4.4. Ways of Knowing
1. Common Sense
 We learn by absorbing the customs and traditions that surround
us
2. Authority Knowledge
 uncritical acceptance of another’s knowledge.
3. Intuition/Revelation
 Intuitive knowledge refers to truths which the mind grasps
immediately, without need for proof or testing or experimentation.
 IF A=B and B=C, THEN A=C
4. Experience
 Experiential knowledge comes from “trial and error learning.‖
5. Deductive Reasoning
 thinking from stated general principles to specific elements.
6. Inductive Reasoning
 thinking from specific elements to general principles.

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Deductive Reasoning
 Deductive reasoning refers to a structured
approach utilizing an accepted premise (known
as a major premise), a related minor premise,
and an obvious conclusion.
 Major Premise:
 All students attend school regularly
 Minor Premise:
 John is a student
 Conclusion:
 John attends school regularly

7
Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning has been adopted into the
sciences as the preferred way to explore new
relationships because it allows us to use accepted
knowledge as a means to gain new knowledge.

Specific Premises:
•John, Sally, Lenny and Sue attended class
regularly
Specific Premises:
•John, Sally, Lenny, and Sue received high
grades
Conclusion:
•Attending class regularly results in high grades
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Example
 Major Premise: (Theory or Hypothesis )
 Attending classes regularly results in high grades

 Class Attendance: (Suspected Cause)

 Group 1:
 John, Sally, Lenny and Sue attend classes regularly

 Group 2:
 Heather, Lucinda, Ling, and Bob do not attend classes regularly

 Grades: (Suspected Effect)

 Group 1:
 John, Sally Lenny, and Sue received A’s and B’s

 Group 2:
 Heather, Lucinda, Ling, and Bob received C’s and D’s

 Conclusion:
 Attending class regularly results in higher grades when compared with not attending
class regularly (the Major Premise or Hypothesis is therefore supported)

 Utilizing the scientific method for gaining new information and testing the validity of a
major premise, John Dewey suggested a series of logical steps to follow when
attempting to support a theory or hypothesis with actual data. In other words, he
proposed using deductive reasoning to develop a theory/hypothesis followed by
inductive reasoning to support it. 9
4.4. Science and research
 Science is inductive in its study of a
number of specifics and its use of
these results to formulate a theory.
 The truths derived in this way are
temporary and open to adjustment
 By definition, science does not deal
with absolute Truth.
 The result is temporary, open-ended
truth
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Research
 Researchers combine the powers of
deductive and inductive reasoning into
what is referred to now as the scientific
method.
 It involves the determination of a major
premise (called a theory or a hypothesis)
and then the analysis of the specific
examples (research) that would logically
follow.
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4.5.The scientific method
 is a step-by-step procedure for solving problems
on the basis of empirical observations. Here are
the major elements:
1. Begin with a ―felt difficulty.‖
2. Write a formal ―Problem Statement.‖
3. Gather literature information.
4. State hypothesis.
5. Select a target group (population).
6. Draw one or more samples, as needed.
7. Collect data.
8. Analyze data.
9. Test (the null, or alternative) hypothesis.
10. Interpret the results.
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Steps of scientific method
1. Begin with a ―felt difficulty.‖
 What is your interest?
 What questions do you want answered?
 How might a theory be applied in a specific situation?
 The felt difficulty is the beginning point for any study (but it has no place in
the proposal).

2. Formulating the research problem and Write a

formal ―Problem Statement.‖
 The Problem establishes the focus of the study by stating
the necessary variables in the study and what you plan to
do with them
3. Gather literature information.
 What is known? Before you plan to do a study of your own,
you must learn all you can about what is already known.
This is done through a literature search and results in a
synthesis of recent findings on the topic. 15
Steps of scientific method…
4. State hypothesis
 Hypothesis is a testable statement derived from a theory
which already exist
 On the basis of the literature search, write a hypothesis
statement that reflects your best tentative solution to the
Problem
 Theory is a set of statements that explain a set of
phenomena

A (scientific) theory is:

 More than just a description – it explains and
predicts
 Logically complete, internally consistent

 Simple and well-designed

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Steps of scientific method…
5. Select a target group (population )
 Who will provide your data? How will you find
subjects for your study? Are they accessible to
you?
6. Draw one or more samples, as needed.
 How many samples will you need? What kind of
sampling will you use?
7. Collect data
 Selecting the data collection method
 Preparing the data collection instrument(s)
 What procedure will you use to actually collect data from the
subjects?
 Develop a step-by-step plan to obtain all the data you need
to answer your questions
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Steps of scientific method …
8. Analyze data.
 What statistics will you use to analyze the data?
 Develop a step-by-step plan to analyze the data and
interpret the results.

9. Test the null, or statistical, hypothesis.

 On the basis of the statistical results, what decision do you
make concerning your hypothesis?

10. Interpret the results.

 What does the statistical decision mean in terms of your
study? Translate the findings from ―statistics” to English.

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4.6 Characteristics of Research
1. Objectivity
 Look for objective reality — the world as it is — uncolored by
personal opinion or feelings.
 Honest researchers take a neutral position in their studies.
 They are willing to accept empirical results contrary to their
own opinions or values.

2. Precision
 Reliable scientific knowing requires precise
measurement.
 They carefully design instruments to be as accurate
as possible.
 Accurate measurement is a vital ingredient in the
research process.
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Characteristics of Research….
3. Verification
 Science analyzes world processes which are systematic and
recurring.
 Researchers report their findings in a way that allows others to
replicate their studies — to check the facts in the real world.
4. Empiricism.
 The root of “empiricism” refers to the ―employment of empirical
methods, as in science,‖ or ―derived from observation or
experiment; verifiable or provable by means of observation or
experiment.‖
 not on abstract philosophizing or theologizing.
5. Goal: Theories
 The goal of scientific research is theory construction,
 not the mere cataloging of empirical data.
 The inductive process of scientific knowing begins with the
specifics (collected data) and leads to the general (theories). 20
4.7. Types of Research
 Under the umbrella of scientific research,
there are several types of studies you can
do. These types differ
 inprocedure
 what they entail
 outcome
 what they accomplish.

Here are five major types of research from which you

may choose.

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4.7. Types of Research
1. Historical Research
 analyzes the question “what was?”
 It studies documents and relics(Relics are artifacts left by
communities and cultures in the past.) in order to determine the
relationship of historic events and trends to present-day practice.
 The goal of historical research is to in explain the underlying
causes of present practices.
2. Descriptive Research
 Descriptive research analyzes the question “what is?”
 A descriptive study collects data from one or more groups, and then
analyzes it in order to describe present conditions.
 A popular use of descriptive research is to determine whether two or
more groups differ on some variable of interest.
 The goal of descriptive research is to accurately and empirically
describe differences between one or more variables in selected
groups. 22
4.7. Types of Research….
3. Exploratory
 initial research to clarify and define the nature
of problem
 usually conducted with the expectation that
subsequent research will be required to
provide
 to understand better the dimension of problem
 most exploratory research provide qualitative
data rather than quantitative
 provide greater understanding of a concept

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 Exploratory research is most commonly unstructured,
“informal” research that is undertaken to gain background
information about the general nature of the research problem.
 Exploratory research is usually conducted when the researcher
does not know much about the problem and needs:
 additional information or desires new or more
recent information.
 To define terms

 To clarify problems and hypotheses

 To establish research priorities

 provides significant insight into a given situation but not usually
useful for decision making by itself.
 helps to determine the best research design, data collection method
and selection of subjects.
 A variety of methods are available to conduct exploratory research:
 1. Secondary Data Analysis , 2. Surveys , 3. Case Analysis, 4. Focus
Groups 24
4.7. Types of Research…
4. Correlational Research
 analyzes the question “what is and why is ”
 describes association between variables of interest in the study.
 makes comparisons, looking for trends or tendencies.
 Better understand the conditions and events that we encounter
(what goes with what)
 To predict future conditions and events.
 Correlations do not show cause and effect. i.e. Detects
relationships between variables but does NOT say that one
variable causes another.
 Correlational research also includes the topics of linear and
multiple regression which uses the strengths of associations to
make predictions.
 The goal of correlational research is to establish whether
relationships exist between selected variables.
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4.7. Types of Research…
5. Experimental Research
 Experimental research analyzes the question “what if?”
 Experimental studies use carefully controlled
procedures to manipulate one (independent) variable,
such as Teaching Approach, and measure its effect on
other (dependent) variables, such as Student Attitude and
Achievement.
 Manipulation is the distinguishing element in
experimental research.
 Experimental researchers don’t simply observe what
is. They manipulate variables and set conditions in order
to design the framework for their observations.
 The goal of experimental research is to establish cause-
effect relationships between independent and dependent
variables.
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4.7. Research Methods versus Methodology
 Research methodology
 It has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a
part of the research methodology.
 The scope of research methodology is wider than that of
research methods.
 Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of
the research methods but also consider the logic behind the
methods we use in the context of our research study and explain
why we are using a particular method.
 Research methods. refer to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations.
 methods which are concerned with the collection of data.
 statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
 methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results
obtained.
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Classification of Research Methodology

 Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

 Applied vs. Fundamental:

 Conceptual vs. Empirical:

 Descriptive vs. Analytical

 Primary vs. Secondary research :etc

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4.7.1 Based on how it is done Quantitative vs. Qualitative :
 Quantitative research
 is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount.
 It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity...

 Qualitative research,
 is concerned with qualitative phenomenon,
i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind.

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30
Main Types of Qualitative Research
 Case Study
 Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by
studying in depth a single case example of the
phenomena.
 The case can be an individual person, an event, a
group, or an institution.
 Grounded Theory
 Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of
data acquired by a participant-observer.
 The researcher does not wait until data are
completely collected to begin data analysis; instead,
data collection and analysis occur simultaneously so
that the analyzed data guides subsequent data
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collection.
 Ethnography
 Focuses on the sociology of meaning
through close field observation of socio-
cultural phenomena. Typically, the
ethnographer focuses on a community.
 Historical
 Systematic collection and objective evaluation of
data related to past occurrences in order to test
hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends
of these events that may help to explain present
events and anticipate future events.

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4.7.2. Based on purpose Applied vs. Fundamental:
 Applied research
 is undertaken to solve a specific problem or provide a
solution to a practical question..
 aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organization

 Fundamental/Pure/basic research,
 is mainly concerned with generalizations and with
the formulation of a theory.
 takes place to explore a particular concept, or
issue, without regard for a specific problem, and
may be carried out to simply gain a better
understanding of the overall concepts.

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4.7.3. Based on how it is done Conceptual vs. Empirical
:
 Conceptual research
 is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
 It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones..
 Empirical research,
 relies on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system and
theory.
 It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment 34
4.7.4. Based on how it is done Descriptive vs. Analytical:
 Descriptive research
 Describes a particular phenomenon, focusing upon the
issue of what is happening, or how much of it has
happened, rather than why it is happening.
 The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
 The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening.
 In analytical research,
 Here, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
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4.7.5. Based on source of data PRIMARY vs SECONDARY RESEARCH :

 Primary research
 Refers to research that has involved the collection
of original data specific to that particular research
project, for example through using research
methods such as questionnaires, interviews or
experiment.
 Secondary research,
 Refers to research where no such original data is
collected, but the research project uses existing (or
secondary) sources of data, for example census or
archive data, published data.

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4.7.1 Research Methods-The Case Study Approach
Doesn’t use sampling subjects out
of large populations
It is an in-depth (not breadth)
investigation of an individual, group,
event, community or institution is
conducted.
The investigator tries to discover all
the variables that are important in
the history or development of his
subject. 37
4.7.2 Research Methods-Observation
 all scientific research involves observation (empiricism) of one kind
or another.
 Here to focus on observation as one specific research technique
among many.
 the term ―observation‖ means ―looking at something without
influencing it and simultaneously recording it for later analysis.‖


 Filled with Obstacles to Objectivity in Observation

 Personal Interest
 ―I see what I want to see.‖

 Early decision
 By ending the observation phase prematurely, the researcher
may interpret the data incorrectly.
 Personal characteristics
 Many of the things that characterize us as being ―human‖
pose difficulties in the observation process: emotions,
prejudices, values, physical condition. 38
4.7.3. Research Methods-Survey Research
 Survey research uses questioning as a
strategy to elicit information from subjects in
order to determine characteristics of selected
populations on one or more variables.
 A written survey is called a questionnaire;
 An oral survey is called an interview.
 Although they serve similar purposes in
gaining information, each provides unique
advantages and disadvantages to the
researcher.
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4.7.4 Research by Secondary data collection
 Secondary data means data that are already
collected and analysed by someone else.
 Usually published data are available in:
 (a) various publications of the central, state and local
governments;
 (b) various publications of foreign governments or of
international bodies and their subsidiary organisations;
 (c) technical and trade journals;
 (d) books, magazines and newspapers;
 (e) reports and publications of various associations
connected with business and industry, banks, stock
exchanges, etc.;
 (f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities,
economists, etc. in different fields; and
 (g) public records and statistics, historical 40
4.7.4. Research by Secondary data collection
 The sources of unpublished data are
many:
 they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies
and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars
and research workers, trade associations, labor bureaus and
other public/ private individuals and organizations.
 Caution !
Researcher must be very careful in using secondary
data.
 It is never safe to take published statistics at their face
value without knowing their meaning and limitations
 The already available data should be used by the
researcher only when he finds them reliable, suitable
and adequate.
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4.8. Research Ethics and Integrity
 Research Integrity
 is an aspect of moral character and
experience.
 It involves all a commitment to intellectual
honesty and personal responsibility for one’s
actions and to a range of practices that
characterize responsible research conduct.
 include a discussion of the ways in which the
participants/subjects might be at risk in this
study and the steps taken to protect their
rights.
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Good ethical practice includes
 Adherence to the mutual responsibilities of mentors
and trainees;
 Proficiency and fairness in peer review;
 Honesty, Accuracy and fairness in representing
contributions to research proposals and reports;
 Collegiality in interactions, communications and
sharing of resources;
 Disclosure of conflicts of interest;
 Protection of human subjects in the conduct of
research;
 Humane care of animals in the conduct of research;

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44
As a summary Research
 is directed toward the solution of a problem;
 is based upon observable experience or empirical
evidence;
 demands accurate observation and description;
 gathers information from primary or secondary sources;
 follow carefully designed procedures, always applying
rigorous analysis;
 requires expertise;
 requires patience and unhurried activity;
 carefully recorded and reported;
 sometimes requires courage;
 emphasizes in the development of generalizations,
principles and theories;
 strives to be objective and logical 45
REVIEW ASSIGNMENTS
 1. State the meaning of research and
purposes of research?
 2. What are the Distinguishing
characteristics of research?
 3. What are the most probable areas of
research in your field of study ( refer at
least some publications in net and get a
feeling of it)?

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