Research Methodology

JNM 461
Lecturer

Prof. Marien Graham

marien.graham@up.ac.za

Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology

Education

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 Introduction to Educational Research

The meaning, aims, data sources, and the nature

of educational research

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 Recommended textbook
Maree, K. (2019). First steps in research (3rd ed.). Van Schaik Publishers.

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 The roles of a teacher
 Instructional Designer
 Curriculum Designer
 Learning Facilitator
 Assessor
 Manager
 Researcher
 Pastoral Role
 Etc.
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 What is research?
Educational research is a systematic inquiry applied to
educational questions and problems, involving a process of
collecting data and logically analysing data.

Data: The results obtained by researchers from which

interpretations and conclusions are drawn.
Research methods (research methodology): The ways in
which one collects and analyses data. Research methods use
reliable and valid procedures to obtain the required
knowledge.

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 What is the aim of educational research?
To obtain knowledge (information)
Educational research may include:
 The creation and development of the intellectual infrastructure of
subjects and disciplines;
 the invention or generation of ideas, images, performances and
artefacts (products) where it contributes to new or substantially
developed insights;
 building on existing knowledge to produce new or substantially
improve materials, devices, products, policies or processes.

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 Sources of knowledge
Personal experience
 Knowledge obtained from people’s lived experiences
 No substitute for experience – very authentic

Limitations
 Depends on how the individual observes and interprets information
 Observations and interpretations may be inaccurate
 Biased
 Subjective1 (not objective2)

1
A set of ideas based on or influenced by personal feelings, tastes, opinions, perceptions, emotions or imagination.
2
The concept of truth independent from individual subjectivity (bias caused by one's personal feelings, tastes, opinions, perceptions, emotions or
imagination).
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 Sources of knowledge
Tradition
 Knowledge obtained from previous practices by a group of people
 Advice, rules, approaches to handle problems are passed on from one
group to another
 It has always been done this way
 Pseudoscience which is when one has a set of ideas based on non‐
scientific theory or belief
Limitations
 We accept what has always been done as the best or right way
 Tradition eliminates the need to search for knowledge and
understanding

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 Sources of knowledge
Authority
 Experts or authorities in a particular field are considered as being
major sources of knowledge
 Experience or unique expertise in something
 May provide insight and understanding that others are unable to
see (medical doctor, teachers, plumbers)
Limitations
 Experts (or authorities) may be wrong
 The public tends to accept something that is actually an opinion,
as a fact

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 Theory in research

 A theory is a way of binding together a multitude of

facts so that one may comprehend them all at once.

 Much of scientific enquiry is linked to some overarching

theory or conceptual framework that guides the entire
process.

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 The parts of theory
 Concepts – the building blocks of theory. A concept is
an idea expressed as a symbol or in words.
 Relationships – how concepts relate to one
another.
 Direction – the building and testing of a theory
can come from two directions, namely;
 Deductive – moves from generalised principles that are
known to be true to a specific conclusion.
 Inductive – moves from specific instances into a
generalised conclusion.

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 Levels of theory
 Micro level ‐ theories dealing with small slices of time,
space or numbers of people.
 Macro level ‐ theories concerning the operation of
larger aggregates such as social institutions, entire cultural
systems, and whole societies.
 Meso level – theories linking micro and macro levels.

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 Theoretical/conceptual framework
 Educational research is guided by theory.
 In other words, the theory drives the research question,
the use of methods, and the interpretation of results.
 A theoretical framework influences the research process
in the selection of what (sample), how to observe
(methodology) and how to make sense of the data (data
analysis).
 In some cases, educational research may be guided by
a set of concepts (conceptual framework).

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 Educational research process
 Step 1: Identify a topic / research area in which you are interested.
 Step 2: Select a researchable problem within the identified topic.
 Step 3: Specify the specific issues about the problem which you need to
understand or explore.
 Step 4: Review the literature on the selected problem.
 Step 5: Decide the specific research question (or hypothesis) which
require investigation.
 Step 6: Determine the research design and methods.
 Step 7: Collect the data.
 Step 8: Analyse the data and present the results (for quantitative
studies) or findings (for qualitative studies).
 Step 9: Discuss the results or findings and relate the it to the literature
review.
 Step 10: State conclusions or a summary regarding the problem
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 Selecting a research topic
 Research requires a topic within which to identify a problem
to be investigated.
 What is a topic? And what role does it play in research?
What is a research topic?
 A topic is the specific subject of your research.
 It is the central idea upon which your research is based.
 It describes where in your field your research falls.
 A topic cannot be solved.
 It simply locates your research within specific secondary
literature.

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 Research topics (cont)
Research topics are:
 Stated in few words or short phrases.
Straight‐forward, un‐complicated, and easy to read and understand.
 A topic should not be too broad; otherwise, it will have too many aspects
that are potentially relevant, and it will be difficult to decide on a well‐
argued problem.
 A good research topic should not be based on emotions but should
rather be based on rationality.
 From the broad issues described in a topic, you may identify a title,
specific problem(s), objectives and questions which may be researched.

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 Purpose of research topics
 A topic allows you to identify and contextualise the problem to be
investigated.
 A clear topic serves as a guideline for finding relevant secondary
information.
 A topic aids you in identifying the key players in your field of
research.
 A topic provides an appropriate background for your introduction
and elsewhere in your research.
 A topic helps you to locate the contribution that your research
might make to the body of academic knowledge.

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 Choosing a good research topic
Characteristics that you may consider when choosing a research topic.

Problem potential:
 Does the topic have the potential to provide a good research problem(s)?
(Are there worthwhile, doable problems within the chosen topic).

Focus:
 Is the topic focused? Broad topics have various relevant aspects which
may present unnecessary complexity.
 E.g., education; teachers; learners; management; etc., are not research topics because they are too
broad.
 Suppose you are interested in teachers; remuneration of teacher, teachers’ qualifications, teacher
training, conduct of teachers, teacher unions, etc., are specifics topics within the concept of teachers.

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 Choosing a good topic (cont)
Availability of literature:
 Is it possible to obtain primary and secondary data on the chosen topic?
 Relevant literature will strengthen your arguments and the quality of your
conclusions.
 If there is no existing literature, it will be very difficult to contextualise and
locate your problem.
 It will also be difficult to identify the appropriate methods and design for your
research.
Interest:
 Does the chosen topic interest you? If not, you may hate what you do and
eventually quit.
Your strengths:
 Consider your strengths when choosing a research topic. If you research an
unfamiliar area, you might obtain inadequate results and conclusions.

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 Difference between a research topic and a title
 A research topic presents the wider area of your investigation‐ it is
the subject matter, what “it” is about.
 A research title is the specific formulation of your investigation,
what the author calls his/her investigation within the identified
topic.
 What appears on a research report is a research title, not the
topic.
 The main purpose of the research title is to draw the reader’s
attention to the specific issue being investigated within the selected
topic.

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 Examples of research topics & titles
Research topic Research title
1. Pass rates in science 1. An investigation of factors that affect pass
rates in sciences
2.Teacher qualifications 2. The effects of under‐qualified teachers on
learner performance
3. Bullying in schools 3. The extent to which bullying in schools affect
learner performance
4. Teacher 4. The effect of teacher remuneration on
remuneration learner performance in rural schools
5. School effectiveness 5. The Creamer’s model of effectiveness applied
to independent schools in a South African
setting
6. Teaching approaches 6. A quasi‐experimental assessment of teaching
approaches for early grade learners

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 Sources of topics
Research topics can come from different sources

 your own personal experiences,

 other people’s experiences,
 through interacting with other people in your area of interest
 from current affairs (e.g. news, documentaries, announcements etc.)
 from historical narratives
 from experiments and observations
 mostly from reading existing literature

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 Research report

 Definition
 Purpose
 Format – steps to be followed

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 Definition of a research report
 A research report is a plan that gives structure and
guidance to prospective research.
 It spells out, in a logical format, the nature of the design
and the means and strategies that are going to be used in
research

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 The purpose of a research report
 A research report is a document that demonstrates that there is a niche
for your chosen area of study and that the research design is feasible.
 The main purpose of a research report is to help you to:
 Think through, focus and define your research plans, as well as
predict challenges.
 Establish a particular theoretical orientation.
 Establish your methodological approach
 Show you have thought about the ethical issues.
 Explain the significance of your research – quality and importance.
 Demonstrate your ability to conduct the research.
 A research report provides you with the chance to explain the
significance of your research project to relevant authorities.

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 Format of a research report
There are various formats for research reports. Here is one example of a format:
Title page
Table of contents
1. Introduction
1.1. Background of the problem
1.2. Problem statement
1.3. Rationale
1.4. Aim and objectives
1.5. Primary research question and secondary research questions
2. Literature review
2.1. Literature reviewed
2.2. Theoretical or conceptual framework
3. Methodology
3.1. Research approach and design
3.2. Sampling techniques
3.3. Data collection strategies
3.4. Data analysis strategies
3.5. Ethical considerations
4. Results (if quantitative) / Findings (if qualitative) and discussion
4.1 Presentation of results (if quantitative) / Presentation of findings (if qualitative)
4.2 Discussion of results (if quantitative) / Discussion of findings (if qualitative)
5. Conclusions and recommendations
5.1. Conclusions
5.2. Limitations
5.3. Suggestions for future research
6. Reference list
7. Appendices

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 Format of a research report (cont.)
. SECTION PURPOSE COMPOSITION

Title page Identifies title, •The research title (should be descriptive of the
writer, study, focused, concise (+ 14 words) and eye‐catching
institution and • The writer’s name (initials and surname; student
degree. number) and subject code (JNM461)

Table of Lists sections of •Main titles of sections

Contents report and page •Sub titles
numbers. •Lists of tables, graphs, figures etc.
Introductio Provides Introductory test
background
n information to
A problem statement/ Rationale
persuade the Aim/purpose statement & objective of the study
reader that the Primary and secondary research questions
study will be Assumptions and delimitation of the study
useful/interesting
Definition of terms

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SECTION PURPOSE COMPOSITION
Literature •To show your •Not expected to be extensive at this stage.
readers that you are
review •Do an initial survey of the main theorists and
aware of relevant
research in the field a library information search to establish your
•To indicate which directions.
issues/topics you •Formulate a tentative list of readings
will focus on in your
research. •Demonstrate critical analysis
•To show the basis •Your review should be shaped by your
of your selected argument (not just a list of studies).
inquiry approach.
•Your review should seek to establish your
theoretical orientation.

Methodolo Describes the Includes:

gy research plan – •your understanding of the nature of knowledge and how
methods, this affects your choice of research approach
procedures, • a description of and a brief justification for selection of
participants, methods of data collection and analysis, and
precautions, etc. procedures you will use to ensure ethical practice.

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SECTION PURPOSE COMPOSITION
Results (if Discuss analysis
Tables and/or graphs (if quantitative) or themes (if qualitative).
quantitative) / results (if
findings (if quantitative) or Results (if quantitative) or findings (if qualitative) discussed in terms
qualitative) and discuss the findings (if
of relevant literature and links to research questions are clear.
discussion qualitative)

Conclusions Discuss overall Include limitations of the study and future

and findings and directions as well as implications
recommen implications
dations
Reference Lists literature •Select one type of referencing style
list that has been (recommended by your department; APA 7th ed.)
consulted and
•Adhere to its rules.
is useful to the
study •Do not mix different referencing styles
To display documents Includes:
Appendices •relevant documents,
that are relevant to
t h e main text but •questions for interviews,
whose presence in •survey instruments,
the text would •observation schedules,
disturb the f low of •explanatory statement to participants,
the argument or •etc.
writing.

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 The title page
 The research title should reflect the essence of the study
 WHO and/or WHAT is researched
 The title should be clearly stated and short: +14 words
 After the title, provide the details of the chief researcher
(initials and surname; student number) and the subject code
(JNM461)

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 Examples of titles
 Teaching Strategies for the Integration of Environmental
Education in the Learning Area Human and Social Sciences
 Teachers’ use of Formative Assessment in the teaching of
Reading Comprehension in Grade 3
 Educators’ interpretation and implementation of the
intended technology education curriculum in the General
Education and Training Phase

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 Table of contents
A table of contents should be provided after the title page.
The table of contents should include:
 main headings
 subheadings,
 the headings and subheadings should be consistently
numbered.
 page numbers indicating to the reader where the headings
could be located.

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 1.0 Introduction
The introduction should contain the following sub‐
sections:

1.1 Background to the problem

1.2 Problem statement
1.3 Rationale
1.4 Aim and objectives of the study
1.5 Primary and secondary research questions

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 1.1 Background to the problem
 The introductory text (the background to the problem)
provides brief background information about the study.
 The background information may relate to the political
/educational /social/historical/ (etc.) context of the study.
 It may also include:
 the theoretical basis of the study
 personal motivation
 policy requirements.
 Etc.
 After reading the introductory text, your readers should
have a good
understanding of what the proposed research is all about.

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 1.2 Problem statement
 In a problem statement, one elaborates on an area of concern, a
condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a
troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in
practice that point to the need for meaningful understanding and
deliberate investigation.

 A problem statement (may also be phrased as a research problem)

is a demarcation of a problem area within a certain context.

 It is a description of the situation that causes the researcher to feel

apprehensive, confused and ill at ease, worries or thinks about, and
wants to find a solution for.

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 Importance of a problem statement
 It introduces the reader to the topic being studied.
 It places the study into a particular context.
 It defines the parameters of what is to be investigated.
 It explains how the results (if quantitative) or findings (if
qualitative) would address the perceived problem.

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 Elements of a problem statement
 A good problem statement begins by introducing the broad area in which
your research is centred, identifying shortcomings in the area, and then
gradually leading to the more narrow questions you are posing and how
you would address them in the study.

 A problem statement, therefore, generally consists of:

 A brief description of a phenomenon of interest.
 A description of a problematic issue regarding the phenomenon.
 An explanation of the need to address the identified issues.
 An explanation of how the proposed study may address the issue.

 It should include the WHO or WHAT, WHERE and WHEN of the problem
situation.
 Cite existing literature throughout to support your arguments.

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 Sources of research problems
 Deductions from theory ‐ Research problems or
hypotheses can be formulated from existing theory.
 Interdisciplinary perspectives ‐ Related disciplines can
reveal new avenues of exploration and analysis.
 Interviewing practitioners ‐ Formal or informal
discussions with practitioners can provide insight into
new directions for future research and how to make
research findings more relevant to practice.

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 Sources of research problems (cont.)
 Personal experiences ‐ Your everyday experiences can
give rise to worthwhile problems for investigation.
 Previous studies ‐ Suggestions for further research,
from completed studies
 Relevant literature ‐ An extensive and thorough review
of pertinent literature may reveal gaps exist in our
understanding of a topic. Research may be conducted to:
 fill such gaps in knowledge ‐ Issues overlooked in previous research.
 evaluate methodologies employed in prior studies could be
conducted in a different context (or sample).
 unresolved conflict or contradictions in literature / society.

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 Criteria for selecting a research problem
A good research problem should incorporate the following
features:
 Compelling topic ‐ must be important to you, your readers, and
to a larger community you share.
 Supports multiple perspectives ‐ the problem must be phrased
in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead supports the
generation and exploration of multiple perspectives.
 Researchable – the problem must be researchable using the
resources available to you ‐ time, finances, ability, etc.
 Interest ‐ the problem chosen must be one that motivates you to
address it.
NOTE: Do not confuse a research problem with a research topic. A topic is something to
read and obtain information about, whereas a problem is something to be solved or
framed as a question that must be addressed.

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 1.3 Rationale
 You have identified a researchable problem, so what? WHY
should your study be conducted?
 The rationale is a justification of the study.
 It clearly states the importance, benefits or significance of
conducting the study.
 It also explains the significance of the study and the expected
outcomes to the educational community or other stakeholders.
 It explains the benefit of the study to others.
 A rationale is, therefore, an attempt to convince (persuade)
institutional authorities of the importance of the research.

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 Importance of a rationale
 Why the selected topic is worth considering or why the question or series
of questions are worth answering.
 What you hope to learn from the study.
 How or what the study will contribute to the field of knowledge that exists
on the selected topic.
 What new perspectives the study will bring?
 What use might the final results (if quantitative) or findings (if qualitative)
be for others in the field or the general public?
 With whom you might share your results (if quantitative) or findings (if
qualitative) once the study is complete.
 All claims should be closely related to the aim of the study.
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 1.4 Aim and objectives

The aim
 The aim is a declarative statement of what the study intends to accomplish
(i.e. what will be done to address the identified problem).
 It succinctly creates direction, scope and the means of data collection.
 Start with: The aim of this study is ……..
 E.g.: The aim of this study is to investigate the wellbeing of orphaned
children in South Africa.
 The aim must be in accord with, and complement, the research problem.

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 Requirements for formulating an aim
An aim should include:
 words defining what you will do, such as; assess, evaluate,
determine, explore, compare, investigate, examine, learn.
 the object of the study; science curriculum, single parenting,
pass rates in science, performance, etc.
 participants; novice teachers, grade 10 learners, school
leavers, orphaned children, orphans, etc.
 where the research will be conducted; primary schools,
orphanages, university, Pretoria, South Africa, etc.

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 The objectives
 Research objectives are descriptions of what will be done to
solve the identified problem, i.e. sentences that specifically
state what you want to do in your research.
 The research objectives are the specific accomplishment the
researchers hope to achieve by doing the study
 Objectives are short, succinct and exact behavioural
statements of tasks that will be carried out during the study.
 A well‐worded objective will be SMART,
 Specific
 Measurable
 Attainable (realistic)
 Relevant
 Time‐bound

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 Objectives (cont.)
 Objectives are usually headed by infinitive verbs such as to: identify,
establish, describe, determine, estimate, develop, compare,
analyse, collect, etc.
 E.g. The objectives of this study are:
 To find out the number of orphans at UP.
 To identify their source of finance.
 To determine the number of meals they have per day.
 To establish their academic performance.
 The objective statements must be based on the identified research
problem and the problem statement.
 Well formulated objectives will help the researcher to:
 focus and organise the study in clearly defined parts
 accurately formulate the study question(s)
 develop appropriate data collection methods
 avoid the collection of unnecessary

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 1.5 Primary and secondary research questions
 Research questions are clear, focused, concise and arguable
questions around which you center your research.
 The first step in the research process is the interrogation of a
broad, overall question that determines the topic of the research. E.g.
 What is the relationship between class size and student achievement?
 Why do learners perform poorly in science?
 How do successful science teachers use textbooks?
 After determining the topic, title, problem statement and
objectives of the investigation, specific research questions need to be
formulated.
 A research question should never be set up to have a “YES/NO”
answer. Here is an example of a poorly formulated research
question “Are there shortages of educational technologies in
Gauteng classrooms?”
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 Importance of research question(s)
 Researcher questions are necessary for:
 Providing a path through the research and writing
process.
 Directing the researcher to appropriate literature
resources
 Providing a focus for data collection and analysis
 Acts as basis for making conclusions
 A research question is important if:
 It asks about something other people care about
 It builds on what you and others already know
 It allows you to learn something you don’t already know
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 Categories of research questions
There are three basic types of questions that research projects
can address:
 Descriptive:
When the research seeks to describe what is going on or what
exists, E.g. Public opinion polls – say it as it exists.
 Explanatory (causal; evaluative; predictive; etc.):
It attempts to explain the cause and effect relationship between
variables.
 Exploratory:
Its focus is on the discovery of ideas and insights – Finding out
unknown ideas/issues, mostly for determining areas for potential
growth, alternative courses of action, etc.

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 Stating a research question
Research questions may be categorised as primary
(main) or secondary (sub) research questions.

Primary research question

 It is the question which the research sets out to
answer.
 It does not have a yes or no answer.
 It names as precisely as possible what the study
will attempt to find out.
 E.g. What is the relationship between class size and student achievement?
 How do successful science teachers use textbooks?
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 Secondary research questions
 The primary research question usually has
components that could be investigated separately.
 Each component should be linked to a secondary
research question.
 Questions (derived from the primary (main) research
question) are referred to as secondary research
questions.
 It should not have a “yes” or “no” answer.

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 Example of research questions
Primary research question:
What is the relationship between class size and student
achievement?

Secondary research questions:

What are the categories of class sizes?
How do students achieve in different categories of class sizes?
How does student achievement in one category compare to
another?

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Qualities of good research questions
 Concise  Timely
 Clear  Theoretically rich
 Operationalisable  Self‐explanatory
 Open‐ended
 Grammatically
correct

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 Examples of poor research questions

 Low‐level questions  Committed questions

 Planning questions  Needs analysis
 Preaching questions questions
 Developmental  Solution‐seeking
questions questions
 Obvious answer
questions

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 2.0 Literature Review
Chapter 3 of Maree (2019) book

 A literature review is the effective evaluation of

selected documents on a research topic.
 The literature review provides a background to the
study
 A literature review entails the literature the
prospective researcher has already consulted.
 It informs the theoretical or conceptual framework,
methods and data collection and analysis techniques.
 It is imperative that the researcher clearly indicates
what theoretical knowledge he possesses and intends
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to use in the prospective research.
Preliminary literature review
 Literature search after identifying your research topic.
 Overview of current information and studies related to your
topic.
 The preliminary literature review is for identifying:
 the gaps and flaws in literature,
 some problems that have or have not been solved,
 appropriate methods and designs for a given study,
 suggestions for further research, etc.
 These will form the basis for formulating your research
problem and methodology of your study.
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 Detailed literature review
A detailed search for information on specific aspects of your study.
Purposes: A detailed literature review enables the researcher to:
 provide a historical background to the study.
 relate the study to a larger on‐going dialogue in the literature to fill in the
gaps.
 show that he/she is aware of the existing literature on the selected topic.
 frame the study in existing literature. To show how your study fits in with
what has already been done ‐ for establishing the importance of the study.
 provide support or evidence for your own arguments & conclusions in your
research.

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 Detailed literature review (cont.)
 provide a basis for the theoretical or conceptual
framework of the study.
 provide direction for the methodologies and data
analysis techniques used.
 share the results of similar studies with the reader.
 provide a benchmark for comparing the result of
the study with other findings from similar studies.

Literature review is an on‐going process – done throughout the study.

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 Format of the literature review
The literature review section of your research report should be
presented as follows:
 Introductory paragraph(s): which briefly explain why and how
you are going to review the literature.
 Various headings (and subheadings) relating to the various
categories, themes or strands of arguments.
 A conceptual or theoretical framework may precede or follow the
themes discussed in the literature review.
 Conclude the chapter by providing a summary of all the arguments
raised in the various sections of the literature review
NOTE:
ALWAYS use transition sentences to link sentences and sections
– so as to have a systematic flow of arguments (thoughts or ideas) throughout the
chapter.
ALWAYS cite the source of your literature and ideas to avoid plagiarism.
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 The process of reviewing literature
Literature review should involve:
 A synthesis of available research.
 A critical evaluation of reviewed sources.
 Clear and concise self‐formulated statements, with occasional quotations.
 The use of rigorous and consistent methods.
The whole process of literature review includes:
 Selection of a research topic.
 Searching for literature relevant to the selected topic.
 Sorting and prioritising the retrieved literature.
 Analytical and evaluative reading of selected articles in a systematic way.
 Comparison of objectives, ideas, methodologies and findings across reviewed studies.
 Organising the reviewed content.
 Writing the reviewed content.
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 Information Sources
 Institutional information
sources (e.g. DOE)
 Newspaper articles
 Textbooks
 Journal articles
 Audiovisual material (e.g.
videos)
 Internet (commonly used)
 Library (Commonly used)
 Dissertations
62
The library literature sources
include:
 Library’s Catalogue (books /
apparatus / etc.)
 Prescribed and recommended books
 Journal articles in electronic format
 Google Scholar
 Library’s blogs
 Dissertation/thesis
 Etc.
 Internet use
If you choose to use the internet
 Be clear on what you want
 Don’t take anything as an undisputed fact
 Be selective, critical, use evaluation criteria
 Use common sense when judging information

International databases
 ERIC (Education)
 Academic Search Premier (Social Sciences)
 Science Direct (Sciences)

63
 Referencing
 The practice of acknowledging sources of
information and ideas that you have used in your
research or an assignment (e.g. an essay or
report) is called referencing or citing.
 Every idea or view which does not originate from
you should be referenced.
 Referencing involves both in‐text citations and
the bibliography (the reference lists)
 Any work submitted without appropriate
referencing will be considered inadequate.
64
 Reasons for referencing
[From the University of Pretoria’s website]
 Demonstrates that you are familiar with developments in your field,
that you have read widely, and know who the leading subject
specialists are.
 Shows that your ideas are related to those of the experts, adding
authority to your arguments.
 Enables your readers to locate and consult the sources you have used
to verify your data and to read more about it.
 Shows that you are not just copying other ideas but are processing
and adding to them
 Highlights the originality of your ideas by making clear distinctions
between them and ideas you have gotten elsewhere.
 Helps to avoid plagiarism.
65
 General rules for referencing
 The reference list should include the most recent
and relevant publications on the research topic.
 The list must be augmented during further
literature searches as the research process
progresses.
 A recognised system is preferred e.g. APA,
Vancouver or Harvard.
 Once you have chosen a referencing style, be
consistent and precise with the rules of the style.
66
 Plagiarism
 Plagiarism poses a considerable problem for academic
institutions worldwide as many students and/or researchers do
not realise that it is a serious form of academic misconduct.
 In University context, “one plagiarises by stating, or implying,
original authorship of someone else’s written or creative work
(words, images, ideas, opinions, discoveries, artwork, music,
recordings, computer‐generated work), and/or by incorporating
such work or material, in whole or in part, into his or her own
work without properly acknowledging or citing the source”

67
 Principles of Plagiarism
 Plagiarism is damaging to the University, its reputation, its
staff, guests, contractors or students.
 The University of Pretoria Plagiarism policy requires students to
act with integrity and to take responsibility for the production and
presentation of academic work.
 It is not a requirement for plagiarism that a person must have
intended to deceive or to plagiarise.
 Universities assumed that where certain plagiarised elements
are found in a text, the author intended them to be there.
 Where paraphrasing is the issue, it is assumed that the author
intended this as a disguise for more obvious plagiarism such as
un‐attributed verbatim copying.
68
 Consequences of Plagiarism (cont.)
It is important to note the following:
 Irrespective of whether plagiarism occurred with or without the
intent to plagiarise, it remains plagiarism.
 Plagiarism is a form of misconduct for which a student may be
disciplined in terms of the university’s disciplinary code
(plagiarism is the equivalent of cheating in an exam).
 Plagiarism is also not dependent on the verbatim presentation
of a specific number of words, as, under certain circumstances,
the use of a single phrase or idea can be judged to constitute
plagiarism.

69
 Consequences of Plagiarism (cont.)
Plagiarism Register
 The University maintains a Plagiarism Register to enable the monitoring of
offenders and ensure the consistent application of penalties.

 The Plagiarism Register also enables a review of the extent of plagiarism

within the university.

 Students need to know that penalties can be serious enough to affect their
academic progress adversely.
 In extreme cases, penalties could result in expulsion or failure to graduate at
all.

70
 Examples of what should be avoided
 Direct copying without crediting the source
 Translating without crediting the source
 Paraphrasing someone else’s work without crediting the source
 Piecing together sections of the work of others into a new whole
 Knowingly allowing another student to copy one’s work
 Resubmitting one’s own or other’s previously graded work
 Collusion (unauthorised collaboration, presenting work as one’s own
independent work, when it has been produced in whole or in part in collusion
with other people)
 Ghost‐writing – you should not make use of ghost writers or professional
agencies in the production of your work or submit material that has been
written on your behalf
71
 Types of plagiarism
SOURCES CITED (BUT STILL PLAGIARISED!)
‘The Forgotten Footnote’

 The writer mentions an author’s name for a source but neglects to include
specific information on the location of the material referenced.
 This often masks other forms of plagiarism by obscuring source locations.
‘The Mis‐informer’
 The writer provides inaccurate information regarding the sources, making it
impossible to find them.

72
 SOURCES NOT CITED
‘The Ghost Writer’
 The writer turns in another’s work, word‐for‐word, as
their own.
‘The Photocopy’
 The writer copies significant portions of text straight from
a single source, without alteration.
‘The Potluck Paper’
 The writer tries to disguise plagiarism by copying from several
different sources, tweaking the sentences to make them fit
together while retaining most of the original phrasing.

73
 SOURCES NOT CITED
‘The Poor Disguise’
 Although the writer has retained the essential content of the source,
they have altered the paper’s appearance slightly by changing keywords
and phrases.
‘The Labour of Laziness’
 The writer takes the time to paraphrase most of the paper from other
sources and makes it all fit together, instead of spending the same effort
on original work.
‘The Self‐Stealer’
 The writer ‘borrows’ generously from their previous work, violating
policies concerning the expectation of originality adopted by most
academic institutions.
74
 Examples of what should be done
 Only hand in one’s own and original work.
 Indicate precisely and accurately when you have used
information provided by someone else, i.e. referencing must be
done in accordance with a recognised system.
 Indicate whether you have downloaded information from the
Internet.
 Never use someone else’s electronic storage media, artwork,
pictures or graphics as if it were your own.
 Cite the sources of all work that does not originate from you.

75
 Theoretical or conceptual framework
 A theoretical framework explains (graphically or in the narrative) the
main issues to be studied and the presumed relationships among them
 A theoretical framework, therefore, guides the research process in
the selection of: what to study (questions, sample), how to observe
(methodology) and how to make sense of the data (data analysis &
interpretation).
 In some cases, educational research may be guided by a theory
(theoretical framework), instead of a set of concepts (conceptual
framework).

76
Example of a suitable conceptual framework
Yazan, B. (2018). A conceptual framework to understand language
teacher identities. Journal of Second Language Teacher Education, 1(1),
21‐48.

77
 Theoretical or conceptual framework

 Select a suitable theoretical/conceptual framework (CF)

upon which you base your research.
 CFs can be obtained from relevant literature.
 Describe your theoretical/conceptual framework under
the literature review chapter.
 Explain how it will guide the methodology and data
analysis/interpretation methods.
 Use existing literature to support your arguments.

Before discussing Section 3, ‘Methodology’, we first need to discuss quantitative, qualitative and
mixed methods.

78
 Quantitative methods
– Chapter 8 of Maree (2019) book
– Numeric data
– Q: How many years teaching experience do you have?
– A: 5, 10, 2, 20, etc.
Qualitative methods
– Chapters 4, 5 and 6 of Maree (2019) book
– Text data
– Q: What subject are you currently teaching?
– A: Mathematics, English, History, etc.
Mixed methods
– Chapter 7 of Maree (2019) book
– Both quantitative (numeric) and qualitative (text)
79
Quantitative Methods
Chapter 8 of Maree (2019) book

80
 Introduction to Sampling
 Sampling: The process of selecting units (e.g., people,
organisations) from a population of interest.
 Sample: The group of units (respondents/participants) from
which data are collected. E.g. people, a type of cell phones, farms,
etc.
 Sample size: The number of units in your sample.
 Sample frame: The list of units from which you draw your sample,
such as a phone book, people shopping in town today.
 Population: The group you wish to generalise the findings of
your study to.
81
 Quantitative sampling methods
 Quantitative research mostly uses probability or random
sampling approaches.
 Probability sampling is when every unit/person in the
population has the same chance of being selected in the
sample.
 Examples of random sampling include:
 Simple Random Sampling,
 Systematic Sampling,
 Stratified Sampling
 Cluster Sampling

82
 Simple random and Systematic sampling
Simple Random Sampling:
 Involves the creation of a list of the sample frame, assigning numbers
to the units and selecting random numbers from the list.
 Reduces the potential for human bias in the selection of units.
 It requires a complete list of the population frame.
Systematic Sampling:
 Involves the use of a sampling fraction (nth) to select a sample.
 Provides a sample that is highly representative of the population
being studied
 It requires a complete list of the population frame.

83
 Stratified Sampling
 Involves dividing the population into groups (strata) and
randomly selecting a proportionate number of units from each
group.
 Provides a sample that is highly representative of the population
being studied.
 Strata are population groups that are different from each other in some
meaningful way, so that, if one group were underrepresented in the sample we
would regard the sample as unsatisfactory.
 Note: Strata look different from each other, but their individual
members are all the same.
 Within each stratum the populations are all similar in some way:
this similarity being the defining feature of each stratum.

84
 Cluster Sampling
 Involves the identification of groups within a population (clusters)
and randomly selecting a number of units from each group.
 Clusters are population groups that are all essentially the same as
each other so that, if some of these groups were missed out altogether,
it wouldn’t really matter.
 Each cluster is essentially a representative of the population as a
whole.
 Clusters look the same as each other, but their members are as
diverse as the population as a whole.
 It is usually employed in national surveys where it is uneconomic to
carry out interviews with individuals scattered across the country.

85
 Sample size in quantitative research
 Sample size is a crucial issue in quantitative research.
 This is because it seeks to make statistically based generalisations
from the study results to populations.
 It is essential that both the sampling method used and the sample
size are appropriate, such that the results are representative of the
population.
 Generally, quantitative studies require 30 to several thousand
respondents.
 The number of respondents depends on the nature of the study.
 However, since quantitative findings are usually generalised to the
whole population, it is advisable to use large numbers.

86
 Quantitative research
Quantitative research is a process that is systematic and
objective3 in its ways of using numerical data from only a sample
of a population to generalise the findings to the population that
is being studied.
Quantitative research emphasizes:
numbers,
measurements,
deductive logic,
control (control group)
experiments (experimental group)
3
In scientific enquiry, empiricism is the foundation of experimental methods and seen as crucial for the collection of objective knowledge. Cohen,
Manion and Morrison (2018, p. 11): “In practice, empiricism means scientifically that the tenability of a theory or hypothesis depends on the nature of
the empirical evidence for its support. ‘Empirical’ here means that which is verifiable by observation, direct experience and evidence, data- yielding
proof or strong confirmation, in probability terms, of a theory or hypothesis in a research setting.”
87
 Important concepts in quantitative
research
Population:
 All the members of some group of interest in a study.
 The entire selection of individuals being considered.
 E.g. A group of individuals from which a sample is drawn, such as all;
school leavers; science teachers, etc.

Sample:
 A subset of a population, consisting of a pre‐determined number, the
sample size, of randomly selected units from the population.
 The group of subjects from which data are collected is often
representative of a specific population.

88
 Quantitative research designs

Experimental
 True experimental
design
 Quasi‐experimental
design
 Single subject design
Non‐experimental
 Descriptive design
 Comparative design
 Correlational design
 Casual comparative
design
 Survey
 Secondary data analysis

89
 Experimental research designs
• The investigator has control over one or more
variables (factors)
• The purpose of manipulating a factor is to investigate
its causal relationship with another factor
• E.g. What is the relationship between the amount of
time devoted to studying mathematics and math
achievement?
Which factor can be manipulated?

90
 Experimental research designs
True experimental design:
Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
– every subject used in the study has an equal chance of being in
each group.
Quasi‐experimental design:
• Subjects are not assigned randomly to groups.
• Use two classes, one as the experimental group, one as the
control group
Single‐subject design:
•Use of a single person/unit (or a few individuals) in an
experiment (usually used when it is impossible or inconvenient to
study groups)
91
 Non‐experimental designs
Descriptive
•Includes studies that provide
simple information about the
frequency or amount of
something.
•E.g. How do high school
counsellors spend their time
during the school day?
Comparative
•Examines the differences
between groups on a variable
of interest
•E.g. What is the difference
between male and female
self‐concept scores?
92
Causal comparative
•Describe relationships between
something that occurred in the past
and subsequent responses in such a
way that it may be possible to draw
causal relationships between them.
They examine whether one or more
pre‐existing conditions could possibly
have caused subsequent differences in
groups of subjects
•E.g. Do students who took typing in
the seventh grade have a more positive
attitude towards ICT at tertiary than
those who did not take typing?
 Non‐experimental designs (cont)
Secondary data analysis
 Researcher has access to data that
others have previously gathered.
 Researcher analyses it in their own
study.
 I.e., the data is not empirically
collected by the researcher.
Correlational
 Investigates relationships among
two or more variables
 Is there a relationship between
creativity and self‐esteem?
93
Survey
 The investigator selects a
sample of subjects and
administers a questionnaire to
collect data
 Used to describe attitudes,
beliefs, opinions, and other types
of information.
 Usually, the research is designed
so that information about a large
number of people/units (the
population) can be inferred from
the responses obtained from a
smaller group of subjects (the
sample)
Different levels of quantitative data
Ratio level
Differences and ratios are meaningful. Has an absolute 0, which
indicates the absence of what is being measured
Ex. Monthly income, distance travelled, age, height

Interval level
Quantitative data in social science can be classified as interval level
when measured with accurate instruments. It is rare for social science
data to meet the criteria for ratio scales.
Ex. temperature, IQ points, standardised aptitude tests (SATs)

94
 Quantitative data collection
 Quantitative data collection strategies are pre‐
determined before the commencement of the research.
 Once determined, the methods usually do not change
during the course of the research.
 The selection of data collection strategies should be
justified and should be suitable for the kind of data
required.

95
 Quantitative data collection methods
Quantitative data collection methods include the use
of:
Measurements
 Tests and examinations
 Self‐reports (ex. m‐health apps)
 Etc.
Surveys
 Questionnaires

96
 Measurements / tests
 Quantitative data can be collected using tests, examinations or
self‐report instruments.
 Scores from these instruments are used in descriptive and / or
inferential statistics.
 Descriptive statistics describe, show or summarise data in a
meaningful way such that patterns might emerge from the data.
It typically shows measures of central tendency and measures of
spread. Examples include means, modes, medians, standard
deviations, variances, etc.
 Inferential statistics are techniques that allow us to use data
from samples to make generalisations and conclusions about
populations from which the samples were drawn. Examples
include t‐tests, ANOVA, Chi‐square tests etc.
97
 Survey / questionnaire / instruments
Types of information obtained from survey‐type
/questionnaire instruments include:

 Reports of fact: self‐disclosure of some objective

information (e.g., age, gender, education, behavior)
 Ratings of opinion or preference: evaluative response to
statement (e.g., satisfaction, agreement, like\dislike)
 Reports of intended behavior: self‐disclosure of
motivation or intention (e.g., likeliness, willingness)

98
 Developing survey/questionnaire / instruments

 Before designing a questionnaire, ask yourself a series

of questions, such as:

“What do I need to know about the sample?”

“Can the selected sample provide the required information?”
“What qualities do the prospective respondents possess in relation to the research?
“What number of respondents is likely to provide sufficient and reliable information?”
“What is the level of education of participants (specifically reading level)?”

 Avoid fatiguing respondents (attention limits)

 Try to motivate your respondents (why would the
respondents want to participate)

99
 Design of questionnaires/surveys
There are two main types of survey questions

 Open‐ended questions

 Closed‐ended questions

A questionnaire may comprise of one type of question or a

mixture of both.

100
 Open‐ended questions
Permits respondents freedom to answer questions in their own words
(without pre‐specified options)

Advantages
 Obtain important unanticipated responses (answers)
 May better reflect respondents’ thoughts\beliefs
 Appropriate when the list of possible answers is excessive

Disadvantages
 There may be a diversity of responses which is difficult to code and analyse
 Respondents may provide incomplete or unintelligible answers.

101
 Closed‐ended questions
 Respondents select their preferred answers from lists of pre‐
determined, acceptable responses.
 There are different types of closed‐ended survey questions:

i. Checklists ‐ respondent selects a certain number of pre‐

specified categories
E.g. Tick the types of exercises you are involved in:
___Aerobics Basketball ___Swimming

ii. Two‐way / dichotomous ‐ respondent selects between two

alternatives (crude ordinal\nominal), E.g. Do you always
wake up before 8:00am? Yes No
102
 Closed‐ended questions (cont).
iii. Ranked‐responses are required to place items in order of
importance. E.g. Rank in order of importance in your life:
• Family
• Friends
• Work
• Religion
iv. Multiple‐choice (Likert‐scale) – respondent selects from a range
of alternatives along a pre‐specified continuum (ordinal)

Strongly Strongly
Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Disagree
1 2 3 4 5

103
 Closed‐ended questions (cont).
Advantages
 Obtain more reliable answers.
 Meaning of responses more significant to the researcher.
 Straight‐forward and easy to analyse.
Disadvantages
 Answers restricted to response scale provided.
Respondent’s choice may not be among listed alternatives.
 Choices listed communicate the kind of response wanted or
expected.

104
 Writing good survey questions
 The way survey questions are phrased will influence the kind of
responses obtained.
 Differences in answers should stem from differences among respondents
rather than differences in the stimuli
Question’s wording is obviously a central part of the stimulus.
 For example (leading question): Lots of people are supporting the Blue
Bulls these days. Are you supporting the Blue Bulls? _____YES NO
 A question of this nature (an interrogation question) is likely to produce
a dishonest response.
 Use simple sentences: Balanced questions\responses;
Exhaustive\mutually exclusive categories
 Avoid vagueness (poorly defined terms) and objectionable \ irrelevant
questions

105
 Examples of ineffective survey questions
1. Double negatives, e.g.
 It is not the case that I have never cheated on my tax returns.
 Never should one not help others.
2. Double‐barrel questions, e.g.
 Is your doctor friendly and reasonably priced?
 Were your caregivers courteous and friendly?
 Are you often fidgeting and on edge?
3. Unbalanced questions\response options.
 E.g. How was the service at this hospital?
Excellent Very Good Great
4. Judgmental questions. For example;
 Are you a racist? Surely you are not a racist – are you?
 Do you condemn homosexuality?
106
 Administration of questionnaires
The different ways of administering questionnaires
include:
 Once off group administration
 By e‐mail
 Through phone surveys

 Face‐to‐face administration

107
 Once off group administration
Advantages
 Many respondents can
complete a questionnaire
in a short space of time
 Easy to administer
 Response rate is optimal
 The researcher can help
respondents immediately
should clarity be sought
108
Disadvantages
 When different
administrators administer the
questionnaire, different
responses could be given.
 The primary researcher may
have limited control
 Conditions in which the
questionnaire is administered
cannot be well controlled
 Could be costly, i.e. printing
 By e‐mail
Advantages
 Respondents can complete the questionnaire at a convenient
time
 The researcher cannot affect/influence respondents
Disadvantages
 Low response rates
 Conditions under which the questionnaire is completed
cannot be controlled
 No‐one can assist with emerging problems
 Respondents can give the questionnaire to someone else to
complete
 Respondents must be literate
109
 Phone survey
Advantages
 Survey can be done relatively quickly
 Respondents can be reached across long distances
 Response rate is usually high
 Respondents do not need to be literate

Disadvantages
 The cost is high
 The questionnaire cannot be too long
 Only people with a phone can be reached
110
 Face‐to‐face interview
Subject responds to questions directly posed by the researcher (e.g. face‐
to‐face interview). It is typically done when the respondent is illiterate,
and someone needs to read the questionnaire to the respondent.

Advantages
 Provides an opportunity to answer respondent questions and ensure the
quality of data (e.g. probe adequate answers, answer all questions)
 Rapport and confidence building are possible

Disadvantages
 Costly and time consuming
 Adequate training of research assistants necessary
 Accessibility to sample may be a challenge
111
 Quantitative data: Reliability and
validity

Definition of reliability

The reliability of an instrument means that if the

same instrument is used at different times or
administered to different subjects from the same
population, the findings should be the same. It also
means that people respond in a consistent manner
to questions about the same topic (internal
reliability).
112
 Types of reliability
1. Test‐retest reliability

Determined by administering the instrument to the same

subjects on two (or more) occasions to see if they yield
the same results. One problem is the ‘memory effect’.

2. Equivalent form reliability

Administer the instrument, and then on another

occasion administering an equivalent instrument
which measures the same construct – to the same
subjects.
113
 Types of reliability (cont)
3. Split‐half reliability
The items that make up the instrument are divided in
two, forming two separate instruments. Performance on
the two halves of the instrument is compared.

4. Internal reliability (Also called internal

consistency)
When a certain number of items are formulated to
measure a certain construct, there should be a high
degree of similarity among them since they are supposed
to measure one common construct. A measure of this
degree of similarity is an indication of the internal
consistency (or reliability) of the instrument.
114
 How to improve reliability
1. Clearly conceptualise constructs – develop
unambiguous clear theoretical definitions.
2. Use a precise level of measurement – Try to
measure constructs at the most precise level possible –
measurement of very specific information / constructs.
3. Use multiple indicators (triangulation) – Two (or
more) indicators of the same construct are better than
one.
4. Use pilot tests – Develop one or more draft or
preliminary versions of a measure and try them before
applying the final version.
115
 Definition of validity
Validity of an instrument refers to the
extent to which it measures what it is
supposed to measure.

116
 Types of validity
1. Face validity
The extent to which an instrument ‘looks’ suitable for the construct
measured. In other words, to what extent does the instrument appear to be
reasonably measuring what it is supposed to measure.

2. Content validity
Refers to how accurately an assessment or measurement tool taps into the
various aspects of the specific construct in question. In other words, do the
questions really assess the construct in question, or are the responses by the
person answering the questions influenced by other factors? This is usually
accomplished by giving the questionnaire to experts and getting their
opinions. Content validity is not “tested for”. Rather it is “assured” by the
informed item selections made by experts in the domain.

117
 Types of validity (cont)
3. Construct validity
The extent to which a research instrument (or tool) measures the intended
construct. Construct validity is the extent to which the measure 'behaves' in
a way consistent with theoretical hypotheses and represents how well
scores on the instrument are indicative of the theoretical construct. Tested
using correlation and factor analysis.

4. Criterion validity (also called predictive

validity)
The extent to which a research instrument is related to other instruments
that measure the same variables. The comparison with a known/golden
standard. For example, a new intelligence test can be compared to the
standard IQ test, and if the correlation is high, there is criterion validity.

118
 Threats to validity

 The reliability of an instrument

 Some respondents may tend to agree or say
‘yes’ to all questions
 Social desirability (respondents answer in a
manner they think is expected)
 Item bias (some groups systematically score
items higher or lower than others due to
external factors such as language or cultural
differences)
119
 Quantitative data: Analysis
Descriptive Inferential statistics
statistics
Procedures (tests) used to
Numerical and graphic draw inferences
procedures which (conclusions) about a
summarise a collection population, from a
of data in a clear and sample.
understandable way.

120
 Descriptive Measures
Two categories of descriptive measurements:

 Measures of central tendency. They are computed to give a

“center” around which the measurements in the data are
distributed.

 Measures of spread.They describe “data spread” or how far away

the measurements are from the center.

121
 Measures of central tendency

• Mean (Average):
Sum of all measurements divided by the number of measurements.

• Median:
A number within a data set, by which (at most) half of the measurements
are below it and (at most) half of the measurements are above it.

122
 Mean
 Perhaps the most important measure of location is the mean (average).
 Sample mean:

∑
𝑥 where n = sample size

 Example:
The number of students per class is as follows:

46 54 42 46 32

∑
The mean is 𝑥 44

123
 Median
 The median is another measure of location for a variable.
 The median is the value in the middle when the data are arranged in
ascending order (smallest to largest value).
 Computation:
o Arrange the data in ascending order (smallest to largest value)
o For an odd number of observations, the median is the middle value
o For an even number of observations, the median is the average of
the middle 2 values

124
 Median (cont)
The number of students per class is as follows:

46 54 42 46 32

Arrange the values from smallest to largest:

32 42 46 46 54

Middle value = Median = 46

125
 Measures of spread
Range
Range = Largest Value – Smallest Value
Range 𝑥max 𝑥min

Example of the salary data.

The range is: 𝑥max 𝑥min = 3 925 – 3 310 = 615

126
 Range (cont.)
 Advantages:
o Easy to calculate

 Disadvantages:
o It’s sensitive to just 2 data values: The Largest Value and the Smallest
Value.
o Unstable, it is influenced by extreme values.

Suppose one of the graduates received a starting salary of R10 000 per month.
Then the range is equal to:

The range is: 𝑥max 𝑥min = 10 000 – 3 310 = 6 690.

127
 Variance
 The variance is a measure of variability that utilises all the data

Example 46 54 42 46 32

Given: 𝑥 44

The sample variance

∑ 𝑥 𝑥
𝑠
𝑛 1

128
 Standard deviation

Sample standard deviation

∑
𝑠 √𝑠 and therefore 𝑠

129
 Example of variance and standard deviation

Calculate the variance and standard deviation of the class sizes.

Number Mean Deviation Squared

of class about deviation
students size the mean about the
in class (𝑥) (𝑥 𝑥) mean
(𝑥 ) 𝑥 𝑥
46 44 2 4
54 44 10 100
42 44 ‐2 4
46 44 2 4
32 44 ‐12 144
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
0 256

130
 Example of variance and standard deviation (cont.)

∑
𝑠 64 and 𝑠 √64 8

OR

∑
𝑠

64
and 𝑠 √64 8

The average deviation of the class sizes from the average class size (44) is 8
students.

131
 Microsoft Excel
Luckily these calculations don’t have to be done by hand.

Average =AVERAGE()
Median =MEDIAN()
Range =MAX() – MIN()
Variance = VAR.S()
Standard deviation =STDEV.S()
There are also many other statistical software packages, ex.
SPSS, Minitab etc.

132
Qualitative Methods
Chapters 4 to 6 of the Maree (2019) book

133
 Qualitative sampling methods

 Qualitative research is generally based on non‐

probability or purposive (purposeful) sampling.
 Purposive sampling: Participants are selected because of
some defining characteristic that makes them the holder
of the data needed for the study.
 Selection of information rich cases for in‐depth study.

 Want to understand something about the cases without needing to generalise to all such cases.

 It is not only restricted to the selection of participants, it

also takes into consideration prevailing setting, incidents,
events and activities.
134
 Examples of non‐probability sampling
 Purposive sampling (Criterion):
 Focuses on particular characteristics of a population that are of interest,
which will best enable you to answer your research questions.
 The sample being studied is not representative of the population.
 Relies on the judgment of the researcher, it is thus prone to researcher
bias.
 Stratified purposeful sampling /Quota sampling:
 Involves creation of strata (groups within a population), and the selection of
representatives.
 Necessary for the creation of a sample that is as representative as possible
of the population.

135
 Examples of non‐probability sampling (cont.)
 Snowball sampling (chain referral sampling)
 Identification of one unit in the desired population and use it to
find further units and so on until the sample size is met.
 Used to gain access to hidden or hard‐to‐reach populations,
such as; drug addicts, homeless people, individuals with
AIDS/HIV, prostitutes.
 Usually not representative of the population being studied
 Convenient/accidental sampling:
 Where the units that are selected for inclusion in the sample
are the easiest to access.
 Very cheap and easy and to carry out with few rules governing
how the sample should be collected
 Often suffers from a number of biases.

136
 Sample size in qualitative studies
 Usually smaller than quantitative samples.
 No rules, only guidelines.
 Participants may be rare or difficult to locate.
1. What sample size will reach saturation or redundancy? How large does the sample need to be
to allow for the identification of consistent patterns?
2. What sample size will represent the variation within target population? How large must a
sample be to in order to assess the diversity or variation that is represented in the population of
interest?

Fugard and Potts (2014) have recommended that qualitative studies require a minimum sample size of
at least 12 to reach data saturation. Braun and Clarke (2013) has recommendations such as 6‐10 for
one‐on‐one interviews and 2‐4 focus groups. But with researchers have in common, is that they all
recommend you continue sampling until you have reached data saturation.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research: A practical guide for research. Sage.

Fugard, A. J. B., & Potts, H. W. W. (2015). Supporting thinking on sample sizes for thematic analyses: A quantitative tool. International Journal of
Social Research Methodology, 18(6), 669‐684. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2015.1005453

137
 Qualitative research
 It attempts to collect rich data in respect of a particular
phenomenon or context with the intention of developing an
understanding of what is being observed or studied.
 Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the
meaning people have constructed.
 That is, how people make sense of their world and the
experiences they have in the world.
 It involves in‐depth study using face‐to‐face techniques to
collect data from people in their natural settings.
 It describes and analyses individual or collective social
actions, beliefs, thoughts and perceptions.
138
 Qualitative research (cont.)

 Qualitative research is exploratory in nature and it uses

flexible data collection methods.
 It is open‐ended and involves inductive style of questioning
and observation.
 Qualitative data is usually in form of narratives of lived
experience and observations, rather than numbers.
 The aim is to interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings
that people assign to them.

139
Different levels of qualitative data

Nominal level
Data that is classified into categories and cannot be
arranged in any particular order
Examples: Eye color, gender, religious affiliation

Ordinal level
Data is arranged in some order
Example:
Poor, Average, Excellent

140
 Examples of qualitative research designs
Interactive methods Non‐interactive
 Ethnography  Concept analysis
 Phenomenological study  Historical analysis
 Case study  Etc.
 Grounded theory
 Etc.

141
 Qualitative research designs: Interactive methods
Defining features Data collection implications
Phenomenology (pages 85‐85 of Maree (2019) book)
• Describe the meaning of lived • In‐depth interviews and focus groups
experiences. are ideal methods for collecting
• Focuses on individual experiences, phenomenological data.
beliefs and perceptions. • Questions and observations are aimed
• It aims at knowing how individuals make at drawing out individual experiences
sense of a particular experience. and perceptions
Ethnography (pages 88‐89 of Maree (2019) book)
•Description & interpretation of cultural • Use observation, interviews,
or social group systems. documentary styles.
•Oriented toward studying shared • Uses many quotations
practices (i.e. culture). • Traditionally, it is associated with long‐
• Emphasises the overall perspective of a term fieldwork.
group or cultural setting.
•Can have a historical focus.

142
 Qualitative research designs: Interactive methods
Defining features Data collection implications
Case study (Section 5.2.5 of Maree (2019) book)
•In‐depth study and analyses of •Cases are selected based on a unique
one to several cases that are (often rarely observed) quality.
unique with respect to the •Questions and observations focus on,
research topic. and delve deeply into the unique
•Primarily focuses on exploring features.
these unique qualities. •Use multiple methods for data‐
collection
Grounded theory (Section 6.2.3 of Maree (2019) book)
•Generate or discover a theory. •Makes use of analytical approaches.
•Uses systematic and exhaustive •In‐depth interviews and focus groups
comparison of text segments to are the most common data collection
build structure and theories from a techniques associated with grounded
body of text. theory.
•Require inductive data collection •Sample sizes for grounded theory are
and analytical methods. limited because the analytic process is
more intensive and time consuming.

143
 Qualitative research designs: Non‐interactive methods
1. Also known as analytical qualitative research.
2. They involve the analysis of documents and individual narratives.
3. Focus on the understanding of a concept or a past event.
4. Authenticated documents are the major source of data.
5. Involve the interpretation of facts to provide explanations & clarification.

Concept analysis Historical analysis

• Involves the study of
educational concepts such as
co‐operative learning, corporal
punishment.
• Describes the different
meanings and appropriate use
of the concept of interest.
• Systematic collection and
criticism of documents,
artefacts and records that
describe past events.
• Study past educational
programs, practices,
institutions, persons, policies
and movements.

144
 Qualitative data collection methods
(Chapter 5 of Maree (2019) book)

Qualitative research uses multiple strategies to collect

and corroborate the data obtained.
 In‐depth interviews
 Focus group interviews
 Observations
 Documents
 Artefact collection
 Supplementary techniques

Researchers usually select one primary data collection

strategy, e.g. interviews, and use other strategies to verify the
most important findings. This enhances the credibility of the
study.
145
 In‐depth interviews
 Use of open‐ended response questions to
obtain data on participants’ perceptions and
meanings.
 Interviews may involve primary data
collection strategies or a natural outgrowth of
observations.

146
 In‐depth interviews (cont.)
Type of interview Description
Unstructured  No predetermination of questions,
interview topics
 Questions emerge from the
immediate context.
 Ask questions to get people to talk
about constructs/variables of interest
Semi‐structured  Topics are outlined in advance
interview  Flexible, but usually a given set of
questions is covered
 Researcher decides the sequence
and wording during the interview
Structured interview  The exact wording and sequence of
questions are pre‐determined.
 Fixed, given order

147
 In‐depth interviews (cont.)
Moving the interview along:
Use probes, prompts and summarise
Prompts
 Let the interviewee know that you are still following
 Verbal (Mmhh. Uh‐huh, sure, yes, I see, ah, okay, oh)
 Non‐verbal (nod, posture)
Probes
 To explore and further clarify
 Statement (I don’t quite understand….; I am still confused…)
 Question (Can you tell me more…?; What do you mean
when you say…?)
 Word phrases (Repeating a word or phrase used by the client in a
questioning tone ‐ You said you were bored?)

148
 In‐depth interviews (cont.)
Summarising and highlighting
Summarise what the participant has said.
 Repeat important statements.
 A way of checking in with the interviewee.
 Shows the person you are listening and allows them to
elaborate.
Misconception
Interviewing is easy. After all, it is just talking to someone.
Evidence
Researchers report difficulty in gaining the truth from some
people and in adjusting to their individual communication styles
while recording data.
149
 In‐depth interviews (cont.)
Skills needed when conducting in‐depth interviews

 Do not start “cold”  Ask open‐ended questions

 Remember the
purpose of the interview
 Find a comfortable
place for conducting the
interview
 Establish trust
 Be true / honest
 Keep eye contact
 Avoid duplicate questions ‐
it leads to a feeling of
interrogation rather than a
conversation.
 Qualitative interviews are
known for using probes,
prompts and silences rather
than a specific format of
questions.

150
 In‐depth interviews (cont.)
Interview skills

 Listen more, talk less  Do not interrupt

 Keep cultural, gender and  Tolerate silences
social differences in mind.  Do not be biased
 Follow up and confirm  Do not fight with answers
 Avoid leading questions given

151
 In‐depth interviews (cont.)
Initial question
Did you enjoy the seminar?
Did you learn anything at the
seminar?
Are you going to change your
teaching style?
Did you identify any learning
content problems that need
to be addressed?
Were the teachers
enthusiastic during the
seminar?
152
Final qualitative
question
How did you experience the
seminar?
What did you learn at the seminar?
How are you going to change your
style of teaching?
How would you change the learning
content?
How could you see that teachers
were enthusiastic during the
seminar?
 Focus group interviews
Variation of interviews which involves a homogeneous group of people.
 Usually 8 – 12 homogeneous members in one focus group, either known or
unknown to each other. It usually lasts 1½ ‐ 2 hours.
 Used to obtain a better understanding of a problem, concern, product or idea
from a group.
 Group members are stimulated by other’s perceptions or ideas.
 A leader facilitates and starts the session, and must be skilled in interviewing
and in group dynamics.
 Assistant observes body language & records data.
 Often used as a confirmation technique for participant observation or in‐
depth interviews.

153
 Observations
 A systematic process of recording the behavioural
patterns of participants, objects and occurrences
without necessarily questioning or communicating with
them.
 Senses are used to gather bits of data.
 Used to gain a deeper understanding and insight of the
phenomena being observed.
 Risk: It is by nature more selective and
subjective
 Be conscious of own biases

154
 Observations (cont)
How to observe:
 More unstructured than quantitative data
 Without predefined categories or classifications
 Define the purpose and focus of the observation
 Define the core terms and constructs to observe
 Events must happen naturally
 Categories and classifications will appear later in analysis
 As the study progresses, the nature of the observation will change and the
focus will increase
 Participants can even take you in confidence and share their problems and
objections with you.
 Stay a researcher ‐ protect anonymity and integrity
 Ensure that your behavior remains ethical and professional
 Data collection continues until theoretical saturation is reached

155
 Types of observers
 Complete observer ‐ does not take part in the social setting
at all. E.g. watching children play from behind a two‐way
mirror.
 Observer as participant ‐ has only minimal involvement in
the social setting being studied. There is some connection to
the setting but the observer is not naturally and normally
part of the social setting.
 Participant as observer ‐ gains access to a setting by virtue
of having a natural and non‐research reason for being part
of the setting. As observers, they are part of the group being
studied.
 Complete participant ‐ takes an insider role, is fully part of
the setting and often observes covertly.
156
 Documents
 Documents: All types of written communication that may
shed light on the phenomena that you are researching
 Records of past events that are written or printed
 Company reports, memoranda, agendas, administrative
documents, letters, reports, e‐mail messages, faxes,
newspaper articles.
 Official documents: Memos, minutes of meetings, drafts of
proposals, etc.
 Personal documents: First‐person narrative that describes
an individual’s beliefs, actions and experiences (diaries,
personal letters, etc.)
157
 Documents (cont.)
 Take care to evaluate authenticity and accuracy
of reports before using them.
 Guard against selectivity, unfair treatment of
authors, misinterpretations of authors’ ideas,
selective interpretation to suit your own
argument.
 NOTE: Document analysis is not the same as
the literature review.

158
 Artefacts
 The use of tangible objects that describe people’s
experience, knowledge, actions and values.
 Artefacts: material objects and symbols of a current or
past event, group or organisation (logos, diplomas,
posters)
 Provide information about social processes, meanings
and values.
 When collecting and analysing artefacts, consider:
 The location of the artefact
 Identification of the artefact
 Criticisms of the artefact
Interpretations of the artefact
159
 Supplementary techniques
 Supplementary apparatus may be used to aid the data
collection process in qualitative research.
 E.g.Use of videos, films, photographs to capture the
daily lives of a group under study.
 Helpinterpret, elaborate data obtained from
observations, interviews and documents and artefacts.

160
 Qualitative Data Analysis
 The main goal in qualitative research is to discover patterns
in the data, which can be used to make general statements
about the phenomenon of interest.
 Patterns are plausible explanations when they are
supported by data and alternative patterns are not
reasonable.
 During qualitative data analysis, collected data:
 is first transcribed – presented in written form,
 then coded
 patterns are determined/ established.
The major pattern(s) serves as the frameworks for reporting


the findings and organising the report.

161
 Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness deals with the question
 How do I know that what I observed is actually true?

The researcher needs to strike a balance:

 The more involved, the more biased and subjective.
 If too distant: impacts negatively on your relations with
participants.

162
 Trustworthiness
Why do researchers become biased? (Subjectively involved)

 Attitude, age, gender, class, race, religion, politics

 Scientific role (theoretical belief / expectations of the
researcher)
 Looking for answers to support assumptions
 Biased sampling
 Becomes subjectively attached to a group
 Assesses the participant in terms of her/his own
image
 Selective or interpreted recordings
 “To place words in people’s mouths”
163
 Subjectivity between the researcher and
the participant
 Researcher and participant not on the same wavelength
 Researcher is not grasping what the participant is trying to
explain
 Misunderstanding
 Transference and counter‐transference

164
 Trustworthiness
Credibility
Research findings meet this requirement when it contains such
accurate descriptions or interpretations of human experience
that those who share the experience will immediately recognise
the description.

Transferability
Transferability refers to the extent to which the findings can be
transferred to larger populations. Research findings are
transferable if they can fit in similar contexts beyond the
situation of the study.

165
 Trustworthiness
Dependability
The research findings will be dependable if the same results are
obtained if the investigation is repeated with the same
participants or in a similar context.

Confirmability
If the research findings can be confirmed by someone else.

166
 Ways to increase trustworthiness
 Use multiple data sources
E.g. combine individual interviews with information from focus groups and
analysis of written material. If data indicate the same conclusions, it increases
confidence in your results.

 Verification of raw data

E.g. Submit your transcripts or field notes to the participants to correct factual
errors. Or confirm during follow‐up interviews or informal conversations
whether your interpretation is correct

167
 Ways to increase trustworthiness (cont.)
 Keep notes of research decisions
The initial research design may change. Keep a journal of decisions so that
others can follow your reasoning. Document the categories and process of
analysis so that another person can see what decisions you made, how you
did the analysis and how you came to the conclusions.

 Greater reliability in data encoding

More justifiable when multiple encoders are used.

 Special inspection
Allow a specialist and / or others with special interest in the study to
comment on and evaluate the findings, interpretations and conclusions.

168
 Ways to increase trustworthiness (cont.)

 Verification and confirmation of findings

Findings are the essential outcomes of your study and data analysis. Confirm
and verify your findings by providing preliminary reports to participants and
request written or verbal comments from them.

 Controls for bias

The deeper you get involved in the study and build relationships with
participants, the greater the risk of seeing only what you want to see and
missing certain things.

 Avoid generalisation
The aim is not to generalise to the larger population. The aim is to gain insight
into participants’ perspectives, experiences, attitudes and behavior.

169
 Ways to increase trustworthiness (cont.)

 Choose quotes carefully

Do not use out of context. Do not force your own interpretation of the text.
Be clear about why you choose each quote.

 Maintain confidentiality and anonymity

Be careful to maintain confidentiality and anonymity ‐ not just the omission of
names and positions.

 Set the limitations of your study

Each study has limitations, and there are often problems in the collection and
analysis of data. Be open to helping your reader understand how you came to
your conclusions.

170
 Ways to increase trustworthiness (cont.)

 Extended and full fieldwork

Allow interim data analysis and run this by the participants

 Multiple method strategies

Make use of crystallisation in data collection and data analysis.

 Language of participants; verbal descriptions

Obtain literal statements of participants and quotes of documents.

171
 Ways to increase trustworthiness (cont.)

 Multiple researchers
Consensus on descriptive data collected by a research team.

 Negative or conflicting data

Actively search for, describe and analyse negative or conflicting data that are
different to the patterns you identified in your data.

172
 Triangulation
Section 6.7.2 of Maree (2019) book

 Data collection (obtaining information from several sources)

 Used in quantitative research to increase validity and reliability
 Used in qualitative research to increase trustworthiness

173
 Crystallisation
Section 6.7.2 of Maree (2019) book

 Where triangulation is the point of departure, crystallisation is a

method of obtaining a deeper understanding of qualitative
research.

 In qualitative research, the aim is to investigate a deeper

meaning.

 The reality emerges from various data collection techniques and

findings are described as it crystalises from the data.

174
 Mixed methods

Chapter 7 of Maree (2019) book

175
 Mixed methods
 Mixed methods research is a procedure for collecting,
analysing and “mixing” both qualitative and
quantitative data at some stage of the research process
within a single study to understand a research problem
more completely
 The purpose of this form of research is to provide a
better understanding of a research problem or issue,
than either quantitative or qualitative research
approach alone.

176
 Mixed methods researcher
 Collects both quantitative and qualitative data

 “Mix” them at the same time (concurrently) or one after

the other (sequentially)
 Emphasizes on the two approaches may be equal or
unequal
 Time spent on each approach may be the same or
different

177
 Objectives of mixed methods
 To explain or elaborate on quantitative results with
subsequent qualitative data.
 To use qualitative data to develop a new measurement
instrument or to test a theory
 To compare quantitative and qualitative data sets to
produce well‐validated conclusions.
 To enhance a study with a supplemental data set,
either quantitative or qualitative – Triangulate.

178
Typical situations for using mixed methods

 To compare results from quantitative and qualitative research

 To use qualitative research to help explain quantitative findings
 To explore phenomena using qualitative research and then to
generalise findings to a large population using quantitative
research
 To develop an instrument because none are available or useful
 To augment an experiment with qualitative data

179
 Advantages of mixed methods

 Allows the researcher to incorporate the strengths of each

method
 More comprehensive picture
 Produces a more complete set of research questions as
well as conclusions

180
 Disadvantages of mixed methods

 Requires that the researcher is competent in both

quantitative and qualitative approaches
 Requires extensive data collection and more resources
 Researchers might use one of the approaches superficially

181
 Bias: What is bias in research
 A systematic error, which can result in the deviation of research
findings from the ‘true’ findings.
 Bias in research can result from errors in; sampling (selection of
subjects), data collection methods, interpretation of data or
perceptions of research subjects.
 Different fields of study are prone to specific types of bias.
 The following are examples of biasness that is common in
educational research.
1. Design Bias
 When the researcher fails to consider the inherent errors associated
with a particular research method.
 Ignoring the study’s limitations in the publication of findings may also
constitute design bias.

182
 Types of bias in educational research
2. Response bias
 A response bias is a type of bias where the participant consciously or
subconsciously gives responses which they think the researcher expects.
 The subjects might also believe that they understand the research and are
aware of the expected findings, and therefore adapt their responses to suit
the expected findings.
3. Non‐response bias
 A non‐response bias refers to situations where individuals who return
questionnaires may potentially not be representative of the general
population.
 The individuals who willingly return the questionnaires may have certain
characteristics which might influence their responses, hence providing data
that might not be credible.

183
 Types of bias in educational research
4. Researcher bias
 When a researcher’s expectations regarding a research influence the study
results.
 The researcher might consciously or unconsciously influence the subjects’
behaviour, alter collected data or record results selectively.
 Reporting bias, where only positive (expected) findings are reported, is a
form of researcher bias: Both positive & negative findings need to be
reported.
5. Selection bias
 Occurs when the process of sampling (the way subjects are selected)
introduces an inherent error into the research.
 This error may be due to the inclusion or omission of relevant subjects into
the research sample.
 In quantitative research, selection bias may occur when the experimental
and control groups are not homogenous (similar).
184
 How to minimise biasness in research
Researchers should strive to minimise obvious and avoidable sources
of bias. This can be done by:

 Using multiple methods of data collection (or different data sources)

– triangulation of data.
 Involving several investigators in the interpretation of collected data.
 Not imposing your perceptions and beliefs on subjects ‐ Avoid
subjectivity.
 Avoiding giving hints or body language that might reveal your
expectations from the research.
 Avoiding selective interpretation of collected data.

185
 How to minimise biasness in research cont.

 Avoiding putting words into subject’s mouths (e.g. completing

subjects’ statements or misinterpreting their views/ideas).
 Being open minded – Do not approach subjects with a negative
attitude or pre‐conceived perceptions.
 Avoiding seeking responses which support pre‐conceived
notions.
 Not being too distant or too attached to the subjects.
 Addressing inherent weaknesses in research methods.
 Ensuring that your sample is representative of the entire
population.

186
 ETHICAL MEASURES
 When collecting data for research, the participants
provide the researcher with information on the basis of
mutual trust.
 The participants’ basic rights should therefore be
clearly stated /explained and protected.
 The following guidelines will assist in protecting the
participants’ rights, interests and sensitivities.

187
 Right to informed consent
 Prior to the onset of the research, informed consent has to
be obtained from the participants or guardians of the
children involved.
 Usually written.
 Inform participants:
 That their responses would be kept anonymous (by using
abbreviations / pseudonyms),
 Of any possible risks and discomfort during the research,
 Of the possible benefits of the research,
 Of their right to terminate their participation at any stage

188
 Deception
Deception may only be used if
 The deceptive technique is justified by the study’s prospective scientific, educational
or applied value?
 There are no alternative procedures that do not involve deceptive techniques?
 The aspects involving deception do not affect the participant’s willingness to
participate (physical risks, discomfort, unpleasant emotional experiences)
 If role‐play is used – subjects are asked to act as if they were in a certain situation
 Participants are informed that certain experiments in which they participate may use
deception.
 Avoid deception that may lead to negative self‐evaluation
 Explain the deceptive nature of the study as soon as feasible afterwards

189
 The right to privacy
 The participant’s privacy will be respected by:
 Keeping in mind that they have the right to refuse to answer
any question,
 Not interviewing them over mealtimes,
 Not interviewing them at night, and
 Not interviewing them for long periods at a time.
 Participants have the right not to be disturbed and
the right not to reveal certain information about
themselves.
190
The right to anonymity and confidentiality
 Participants should be assured that their identity will be kept
a secret.
 The settings and participants should not be identifiable in
print.
 Locations and features of settings need to be disguised to
appear similar to several possible places (so that the location is
unidentifiable).
 No true names should be mentioned.
 If data is gathered by means of a voice recorder, interviews
and participant observation, the participants should be
informed about the use of the devices and they are free to
reject them.

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The right to anonymity and confidentiality
(cont)
 Participants should be informed that all data will be
destroyed as soon as the data analyses have been
completed. Or, alternatively, if the data needs to be stored
for some time, it will be stored in a place where only the
researcher has access to it.

 Ultimately, they have to be ensured that information

gathered will be treated as confidential.

 Dilemma: Weighing up the right to anonymity and the

welfare of the community.

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 The right to protection against possible harm
 The researcher should inform the participants that there might
be some risk involved in their participation in the research.
 The researcher has to attend to any risks that might possibly be
more than everyday life risks.
 Consider:
 Being told that you have latent homosexual tendencies
 Being locked in a room that appears to be on fire
 Ask yourself:
 Can people willingly put themselves in this situation?
 Special groups that need to be considered? (heart patients,
epileptics, borderline schizophrenics).

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Summary of key points for conducting ethical research
 Be knowledgeable about ethical principles, professional
guidelines, and legal requirements.
Maximise potential benefits
Minimise potential risks
 Obtain needed permission
Minimise potential misinterpretations and misuses of results
 Obtain informed consent
 Protect the privacy and confidentiality of the subjects.

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