Chapter 3

Research Design

Research Design:
Experimental Design

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3.1. Research Design
 The research design is the master plan specifying the
methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing
the needed information.
 the arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure

 Need of Research Design: Research design acts as a firm

foundation for the entire research. It is needed because it facilitates
the smooth functioning of the various research operations. It makes
the research as efficient as possible by giving maximum information
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

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Research design must, at least, contain—
 (a) a clear statement of the research
problem;

 (b) the population to be studied; Sampling

 (c) procedures and techniques to be used

for gathering information(data);

 (d) methods to be used in processing and

analyzing data (Statistics )

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 Research Design
 The research could have been conducted from
a study design or a survey design and it is
important to distinguish between the two.
 Studies involve the investigation and testing
of a hypothesis. They can be divided into two
different types, experimental or observational.
 Surveys are used to collect data through
questions and answers and are used to
gather information about the opinions,
demographics etc of the population of
interest.
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Experimental Studies
 An experimental study deliberately imposes a treatment to
a group of units of the population. X y
 In experimental study there are two groups in the study
 Experimental group Control group

 These units are referred to as experimental units and as a

group are called the experimental or treatment group.

 A comparison is made between this group and a control

group, a group of units which have no treatment imposed.

 Both groups are sufficiently large and representative.

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Method of data collection by Experiment:

 Experimental setup
 Specification of the instrument and manufacturer information
required

 Procedure of operation
 Should be produced as manual of operation

 Conditions of operation
 Fixing operating parameters

 method of reading of data

 From the instrument
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Standardization tests
 Standardization refers to methods used in gathering
and treating subjects for a specific study.
 In order to compare the results of one group to the
results of a second group, we must assure that each
group receives the same opportunities to succeed.
 Standardized tests, assure that each student
receives the same questions in the same order and
is given the same amount of time, the same
resources, and the same type of testing
environment.
 Without standardization, we could never adequately
compare groups.
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Observational Studies
 Observation is a method of collecting data by human,
mechanical, electrical or electronic means.
 There are many reasons why we cannot conduct an
experimental study.
 As observational studies simply observe something as it
is found the results are more reliable than experimental
studies. Y ---(X1 X2 X3)
 observational study it is more difficult to determine
‗cause and effect‘, as nothing is controlled for and there
could be many factors at play that will determine results.
 Observational studies are often found in the medical or
psychological fields where, for ethical and practical
reasons, there are strict rules regarding what can and
cannot be ‘done’ to subjects. 8
Survey Design
A written survey is called a
questionnaire;
 An oral survey is called an
interview.
 Although they serve similar purposes
in gaining information, each provides
unique advantages and
disadvantages to the researcher.
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Questionnaire Design
 Questionnaire design forms the central
role in the survey process
 Good questionnaire design is crucial in
terms of:
encouraging the respondent to
participate in the survey; and
eliciting the required information
from the respondent in a valid
way.
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How to design questionnaire
 Y = f(X1, X2, X3, ….Xn)

 X1 Y X2 Y X3 Y

 5 exp 5 exp 5 exp

 5 ques 5 quest 5 quest

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Main objectives of questionnaire
 obtain accurate information from
respondents;
 provide a logical structure to the
questionnaire/ interview so that it flows
smoothly;
 provide a standard form on which responses
can be recorded; and
 facilitate data entry and processing through
the use of coding.
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Importance of Pretest of questionnaire

a trial run(pilot study) with a group

of respondent used to screen out
problem in the instruction or
design of questionnaire
 look –ambiguous question or
potential of misunderstanding

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Pretesting relates to Questionnaire in
research

a) What is the main purpose for pretesting

questionnaire?
b) Give two reasons why a Questionnaire
is pre-tested on a similar group

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The researcher must pay attention to the following points in
constructing an appropriate and effective questionnaire or a schedule:
 The researcher must keep in view the problem he is to study for it provides the
starting point for developing the Questionnaire/Schedule. He must be clear about the
various aspects of his research problem to be dealt with in the course of his research
project.
 Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of information sought, the
sampled respondents and the kind of analysis intended. The researcher must decide
whether to use closed or open-ended question. Questions should be simple and must
be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out
tabulation plan. The units of enumeration should also be defined precisely so that
they can ensure accurate and full information.
 Rough draft of the Questionnaire/Schedule be prepared, giving due thought to the
appropriate sequence of putting questions. Questionnaires or schedules previously
drafted (if available)may as well be looked into at this stage.
 Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the rough
draft for a better one. Technical defects must be minutely scrutinised and removed.
 Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the questionnaire. The questionnaire
maybe edited in the light of the results of the pilot study.
 Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward directions for the respondents
so that they may not feel any difficulty in answering the questions.

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Parts of research design
 (a) sampling design
 the method of selecting items to be observed;
 (b) observational design
 the conditions under which the observations are to be
made;
 (c) statistical design
 the question of how many items are to be observed and
how the information and data gathered are to be
analyzed;
 (d) operational design
 the techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can be
carried out.
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Types of Sampling
A. Probability (Random) Sampling …
1. Simple random sampling—All members have equal chance to be
selected – free of bias
 This a sample drawn in such way that every individual in the population has an equal
chance of appearing in the sample.
2. Systematic random sampling - selection of elements from an
ordered sampling frame [ 1 2 …5 10 …. 16 … 18]
 Relies on arranging the target population according to some ordering
scheme and then selecting elements at regular interval through the ordered
list. In this case we choose every Nth individual e.g. every 5th, 10th, etc., the
first one to be included should be randomly selected.
3. Stratified random sampling- Stratification is the process of
dividing members of the population into homogeneous subgroups
before sampling( Male, female etc). a random sample is drawn
from all the strata
 In this case, we start by dividing the population into different strata according to
their characteristics (e.g. male and female, different age groups, rural and
urban). Then from each of those strata, we choose a random sample from each
stratum, the final sample is the total of the samples from different strata. 17
Types of Sampling …
A. Probability (Random) Sampling …
4. Multistage sampling- sampling is carried out in stages using smaller
and smaller sampling units at each stage
 in this case the sample is taken in a series of stages.
 First, start by big clusters (e.g. zones) from this draw a sample, each zone is then
divided into cities and villages, and from each of these you can choose a sample,
from each city choose a district or house by random method, and then randomly
draw a sample of families or individuals.

5. Multiphase sample- A sampling procedure in which some

information is collected from the whole sample and additional
information is collected, at the same time or later, from sub samples of
the entire sample
6. Cluster sample- in cluster sampling only the selected clusters are
studied.
 In this case the population first divided in to clusters or groups
as sample units rather than individuals and all the elements
within the chosen cluster are examined (e.g. house holds,
schools) and the sample is selected from these clusters by
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simple random method.
B. Non-Probability Samples
 Thisis sample chosen according to the person's own
judgment so result cannot be generalized to the
whole population .
 Convenience sample
 It uses participants who are easily accessible to the
researcher and who meet the criteria of the study.

 Purposive/theoretical/ judgmental sampling:

 In this type, the researcher based on knowledge and
expertise of the subject, selects or hand picks the
elements of the study.
 The chosen element are though to best represent the
phenomena being studied 19
B. Non-Probability Samples…

 Quota sampling:
 In this case the population are divided into strata
then the researcher determines which strata are to
be studied, then computes number of participants
needed for each strata, once quota for each strata
is determined, the subjects are solicited via a
convenience sampling method.

 Snowball sampling:
 It is a particular type of convenience sampling in
which the researcher net works with a small
sample of accessible participants and use them to
assist in identifying other participants with the
specific trait. 20
Three basic principles of experimental designs
 (1) the Principle of Replication;

 (2) the Principle of Randomization;

 (3) Principle of Local Control.

 An experiment is valid if:
 the observed change in the dependent
variable is, in fact, due to the independent
variable (internal validity)
 if the results of the experiment apply to the
―real world‖ outside the experimental
setting (external validity)
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Two Types of Experimental Designs

(a) Informal experimental designs

 (i) Before-and-after without control design.

 (ii) After-only with control design. (information

on baseline is usually known before the
intervention)

 (iii) Before-and-after with control design.

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1. Before-and-after without control design (Pre-Experimental)

2. After-only with control design

3. Before-and-after with control design

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(b) Formal experimental designs
 (i) Completely randomized design (C.R.
Design).

 (ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).

Experimental subjects are first divided into
homogeneous blocks before they are randomly
assigned to a treatment group.
K
 (iii) Factorial designs. N   ni
i 1

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Factorial design
 involve two or more independent variables
with at least one independent variable
being manipulated by the researcher
 two-by-one factorial design (2 cells) 2x1
 two-by-two factorial design (4 cells) 2x2
 two-by-three factorial design (8 cells)
2x2x2
 two-by-four factorial design (16 cells)
2x2x2x2
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Randomized block design
 Principleof local control along with
other two principle of experimental
design
 subjects are first divided into groups
 each group the subjects are relatively
homogeneous
 The number of subjects are equal in
each group
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 A true experimental research design must
essentially consist of the following three
characteristics: (Otherwise quasi-experimental)
Manipulation (treatment)
 conscious control of the independent variable by the
researcher through treatment or intervention(s) to
observe its effect on dependent variable.
Randomization
 it means that every subject has and equal chance of
being assigned to experimental or control group.
Control group
 use of control group and controlling the effects of
extraneous/confounding variable in which
researcher is interested. 27
Sample size Design
 This is the sub-population to be studied in order to
make an inference to a reference population
 However, in research, because of time constraint and
budget, representative sample are normally used.
 The larger the sample size the more accurate the
findings from a study.
 Availability of resources sets the upper limit of the
sample size.
 While the required accuracy sets the lower limit of
sample size
 Therefore, an optimum sample size is an essential
component of any research.

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SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION
 Sample size determination is the mathematical
estimation of the number of subjects/units to be included
in a study.
 When a representative sample is taken from a
population, the finding are generalized to the population.
 Optimum sample size determination is required for the
following reasons:
 To allow for appropriate analysis
 To provide the desired level of accuracy
 To allow validity of significance test.

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 PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING
SAMPLE SIZE.
 Thereare four procedures that
could be used for calculating
sample size:
Useof formulae
Readymade table

Nomograms

Computer software
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USE OF FORMULAE FOR SAMPLE SIZE
CALCULATION
 There are many formulae for calculating
sample size in different situations for
different study designs.
 The appropriate sample size for population-
based study is determined largely by 3
factors
The desired level of confidence
The estimated prevalence of the variable
of interest..
The acceptable margin of error. 31
For population >10,000.
n=Z2pq/d2
 n= desired sample size (when the population>10,000)
 Z=standard normal deviate; usually set at 1.96(or a~2),
which correspond to 95% confidence level.
 p=proportion in the target population estimated to have a
particular characteristics. If there is no reasonable
estimate, use 50%(i.e 0.5)
 q=1-p(proportion in the target population not having the
particular characteristics)
 d= degree of accuracy required, usually set at 0.05 level(
occasionally at 2.0) also called margin of error

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If study population is < 10,000

nf=n/1+(n)/(N)

 nf= desired sample size, when study

population <10,000
 n= desired sample size, when the study
population > 10,000
 N= estimate of the population size

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Revise the following points
from statistics
Confidence interval
Proportion

Margin of error

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