Minerals

• The mineral (inorganic) elements constitute only a small proportion

of the body weight.
Functions:
• It performs several vital functions which are absolutely essential for
the organism.
• These include calcification of bone, blood coagulation,
neuromuscular irri tability, acid-base equilibrium, fluid balance and
osmotic regulation.
Classification:
• The minerals are classified as principal elements and trace elements.
• The seven principal elements (macrominerals) constitute 60-80% of
the body’s inorganic material.
• These are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium,
chloride and sulfur.
• The principal elements are required in amounts greater than 100
mg/day.
• The (microminerals) are required in amounts less than 100 mg/day.
• They are subdivided into three categories:
• Essential trace elements: lron, copper, iodine, manganese, z inc,
molybdenum, cobalt, fluorine, selenium and chromium.
• Possibly essential trace elements: Nickel, vanadium, cadmium and
barium.
• Non-essential trace elements: Aluminium. lead, mercury, boron,
silver, bismuth etc.
 Calcium
Major sources:
• Milk and milk products, leafy vegetables, beans.
Recommended dietary allowance: 0.8-1.0g /d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
Rickets, osteomalacia, osteoporosis.
Major functions:
• Constituent of bones and teeth, muscle
contraction, nerve transmission.
• Calcium is the most abundant among the
minerals in the body.
• The total content of calcium in an adult man is
about 1 to 1 .5 kg.
• As much as 99% of it is present in the bones and
teeth.
• A small fraction (1%) of the calcium, found
outside the skeletal tissue, performs a wide
variety of functions.
Absorption:
• Mostly occurs in the small intestine
(duodenum) by an energy dependent active
process.
• It is influenced by several factors:
 Factors affecting calcium absorption
1 . Vitamin D (calcitriol) induces the synthesis of
calcium binding protein in the intestinal epithelial
cells and promotes Ca absorption.
2. PTH enhances Ca absorption through the
increased synthesis of calcitriol.
3. Acidity (low pH) is more favourable for Ca
absorption.
4. Lactose promotes calcium uptake by intestinal
cells.
5. The amino acids lysine and arginine facilitate Ca
absorption.
 Factors inhibiting Ca absorption
1 . Phytates and oxalates form insoluble salts and
interfere with Ca absorption.
2. High content of dietary phosphate results in the
formation of insoluble calcium phosphate and
prevents Ca uptake.
 The dietary ratio of Ca and P-between 1 : 2 and 2 : 1-
is ideal for optimum Ca absorption by intestinal cells.
3. The free fatty acids react with Ca to form insoluble
calcium soaps.
 This is particularly observed when the fat absorption
is impaired.
4. Alkaline condition (high pH) is unfavourable for
Ca absorption.
5. High content of dietary fiber interferes with Ca
absorption.
Fig: Different forms of circulating calcium.
Fig: Overview of calcium homeostasis
 Plasma Calcium
• The normal concentration of plasma or serum Ca
is 9-11 mg/dl (4.5-5.5 mEq/l)
 FACTORS REGULATING PLASMA Ca LEVEL

• The hormones -calcitriol, PTH and calcitonin are

the major factors that regulate the plasma
calcium within a narrow range (9-11 mg/dl).
 DISEASE STATES

Hypercalcemia:
• Elevation in serum Ca level (normal 9-11 mg/dl)
is hypercalcemia.
• It is associated with hyperparathyroidism caused
by increased activity of parathyroid glands.
• Elevation in the urinary excretion of Ca and P,
often resulting in the formation of urinary calculi,
is also observed in these patients.
• The determination of ionized serum calcium
(elevated to 6-9mg/dl) is more useful for the
diagnosis of hyperparathyroidism.
Hypocalcemia:
• lt is characterized by a fall in the serum Ca to
below 7 mg/dl, causing tetany.
• It is mostly due to hypoparathyroidism.
• This may happen after an accidental surgical
removal of parathyroid glands or due to an
autoimmune disease.
Rickets:
• It is a disorder of defective calcification of bones.
• This may be due to a low levels of vitamin D in
the body or due to a dietary deficiency of Ca and
P- or both.
• An increase in the activity of alkaline phosphatase
is a characteristic feature of rickets.
Renal rickets (vitamin D resistant rickets):
• Renal rickets is associated with damage to renal
tissue, causing impairment in the synthesis of
calcitriol.
• Renal rickets can be treated by administration of
calcitriol.
Osteoporosis:
• Osteoporosis is characterized by deminera-
Iization of bone resulting in the progressive loss of
bone mass.
 Phosphorus
Major sources:
Milk, cereals, leafy vegetables
Recommended dietary allowance: 0.8-1.0g /d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
Rickets, Osteomalacia.
Major functions:
• Constituent of bones and teeth, in the formation
of high energy phosphates, nucleic acids,
nucleotide coenzymes.
 Magnesium
Major sources:
• Cereals, vegetables, fruits, milk
Recommended dietary allowance: 300-350m g/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
• Neuromuscular weakness, irritation
Major functions:
• Constituent of bones & teeth; Cofactor for
enzymes. E.g. Kinases.
 Sodium
Major sources:
Table salt, salt added foods.
Recommended dietary allowance: 5-10 g/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
• Almost unknown on normal diet.
Major functions:
• Chief cation of extracellular fluids: acid-base
balance. Osmotic pressure; nerve and muscle
function.
 Chlorine
Major sources:
Table salt.
Recommended dietary allowance: 5-10 g/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
• Almost unknown on normal diet.
Major functions:
• Regulation of acid-base balance; formation of HCI
 Potassium
Major sources:
Fruits, nuts, vegetables
Recommended dietary allowance: 3-4 g/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
• Muscular weakness, mental confusion
Major functions:
• Chief cation of intracellular fluids: acid-base
balance: osmotic pressure; muscle function
 Sulfur
Major sources:
Sulfur containing amino acids
Recommended dietary allowance: 3-4 g/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
• Almost unknown.
Major functions:
• Constituent of sulfur containing amino acids,
certain vitamins (thiamine, biotin) and other
compounds (heparin, chondroitin sulfate).
 Iron
Major sources:
• Organ meats (liver, heart), leafy vegetables, iron
cookware.
Recommended dietary allowance: 10-15 mg/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
• Hypochromic, microcytic anemia
Major functions:
• Constituent of heme e.g. hemoglobin, myoglobin,
cytochromes; involved in 02 transport and
biological oxidation.
 Copper
Major sources:
• Organ meats, cereals, leafy vegetables
Recommended dietary allowance: 2-3 mg/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
Anemia, Menke's disease.
Major functions:
• Constituent of enzymes e.g. Cytochrom C oxidase,
catalase, tyrosinase; in iron transport.
 Iodine
Major sources:
• Iodized salt, sea foods
Recommended dietary allowance: 150-200µg/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
Cretinism, goiter, myxedema.
Major functions:
• Constituen of thyroxine and triiodothyronine.
 Manganese
Major sources:
• Cereals, leafy vegetables.
Recommended dietary allowance: 2-9 mg/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
• Almost unknown
Major functions:
• Cofactor for enzymes e.g. arginase, pyruvate
carborylase; glycoprotein synthesis
 Zinc
Major sources:
• Meat, fish, milk
Recommended dietary allowance: 10-15mg/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
• Growth retardation, poor wound healing,
hypogonadism
Major functions:
• Cofactor for enzymes e.g. alcohol dehydrogenase,
carbonic anhydrase, lactate dehydrogenase.
 Cobalt
Major sources:
• Foods of animal origin
Recommended dietary allowance: 5-8µg/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
• Pernicious anemia (as in vitamin B12deficiency)
Major functions:
• Constituent of vitamin B12, required for the
formation of erythrocytes.
 Fluorine
Major sources:
• Drinking water
Recommended dietary allowance: 2-4mg/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
• Dental caries, osteoporosis
Major functions:
• Helps in the proper formation of bones and teeth
 Selenium
Major sources:
• Organ meats, sea foods
Recommended dietary allowance: 50-200µg/d
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
• Muscular degeneration, cardiomyopathy
Major functions:
• Involved in antioxidant function along with
vitamin E ; constituent of glutathione peroxidase
and selenocysteine.