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 UNIT 4

The states of matter

revisited
Lesson1 The states of matter
Objectives
■ Describe and explain the properties of substances in their solid, liquid, and gas
states
■ Identify changes of state

Keywords
Volume
Container
Oxygen
Slightly
The gas state
 Oxygen is all around us, mixed with other substances in the air.
 Without oxygen, we could not live. Without oxygen, fuels would not burn.
 In the air, oxygen exists in the gas state. Its particles move around from place to place.
 They do not touch each other, and spread out to fill the whole container.
 There are very weak forces of attraction between the particles.
 The arrangement and behaviour of the particles in the gas state explain each of the
properties below:

● gases fill the whole container – their volume is the same as the volume of the container
● gases take the shape of their container
● gases can flow
● gases can be compressed.
The liquid state
 If oxygen is cooled to –183 °C it changes state from gas to liquid. This change of state is called
condensation.
 In any change of state, the particles themselves do not change. Their mass, for example, remains
the same.
 It is only the arrangement and behaviour of the particles that change.
 In the liquid state, there are strong forces holding the particles together.
 The particles touch each other, and there is very little empty space between them.
 The particles are not arranged in a regular pattern.
 They move around from place to place, in and out of each other.
The arrangement and behaviour of the particles in the liquid state explain each of the properties
below:
● liquids have a fixed volume
● liquids take the shape of their container
● liquids can flow
● liquids can be slightly compressed.
The solid state
 At –218 °C, oxygen changes from the liquid state to the solid state.
 This change of state is called freezing.
 Solid oxygen behaves differently from oxygen in the gas and liquid states.
 Like all solids, it has the properties below:
● solids have a fixed shape and volume
● solids cannot be compressed
● solids cannot flow.
 The particle theory explains the properties of substances in the solid state.
 The particles are arranged in a regular pattern, and cannot be any closer together.
 Strong attractive forces hold the particles in their pattern.
 The particles do not move around from place to place – they vibrate on the spot.
More changes of state
 Solid oxygen changes to the liquid state when it is warmed to –218 °C. This is melting.
 At higher temperatures, particles escape from the surface of liquid oxygen.
 Some of the liquid oxygen has changed state to form oxygen gas. This is evaporation.
 At –183 °C liquid oxygen boils. In boiling, bubbles of oxygen gas form throughout the liquid.
 The bubbles rise to the surface and escape. Eventually, all the liquid oxygen changes state to
become a gas.
 summary

 The arrangement and behaviour of particles explains the different

properties of the substance in the gas, liquid, and solid states
Lesson2 Explaining diffusion

Objectives
■ Use the particle theory to explain diffusion
■ Describe evidence for diffusion
Keywords

Diffusion
Mass
Temperature
wafeeqoh is cooking dinner for her family.
Very soon, everyone in the house can smell the food. Why?
Food particles evaporate as wafeeqoh is cooking.
They move around randomly in the air, and spread out.
The food particles mix with air particles. Soon there are food particles all over the
house.
Some of the food particles enter your nose, which detects the smell.
The random movement and mixing of particles is called Diffusion.
You do not need to move or stir to make diffusion happen.

The speed of mixing by diffusion depends on three factors:

● Temperature.
● Size and mass of the particles.
● The states of the substances that are diffusing.
Diffusion and temperature
Particles from warm food diffuse more quickly than those from cool food.
The warmer particles have more energy, so they move faster.
Diffusion and particle size and mass
A teacher sets up the apparatus below.

 Particles of hydrogen chloride and ammonia evaporate from the cotton wool.
 They diffuse along the tube. When the two types of particle meet they react.
 This forms a new substance, which is a white solid. You can see the solid in the tube.
 The solid forms closer to the cotton wool soaked in hydrochloric acid.
 This shows that hydrogen chloride particles diffuse more slowly than ammonia particles.
 A hydrogen chloride particle has a greater mass than an ammonia particle. Big, heavy particles
diffuse more slowly than smaller, lighter particles.
Diffusion in gases, liquids, and solids

Diffusion through gases

 Diffusion happens quickly in a gas.
This is because a particle can travel a long distance before it hits another particle.

Diffusion through liquids

 Mo puts a crystal of potassium manganate(vii) in a Petri dish of water. He watches carefully.
 The purple colour starts to spread through the water.
 The next day Mo looks at the mixture again. The purple colour has spread all through the water.
 Purple particles have moved away from the crystal and mixed with the water particles.
 Diffusion happens more slowly in liquids than in gases.
 This is because particles are closer in liquids, and there are stronger forces between them .
Diffusion in solids
 Diffusion happens very slowly – if at all – in solids.
 This is because very strong forces hold the particles in position.
 However, solid diffusion can happen enough to be useful.
 Solar cells generate electricity from sunlight.
 One type of solar cell is made from thin slices of pure silicon.
 When the cell is being made, phosphorus particles diffuse into the silicon.
 The process happens at a high temperature, just below the melting point of
silicon.
Evidence for moving particles
 In 1828, Robert Brown suspended pollen grains in water.
 He looked at them through a microscope.
 The pollen grains moved around quickly. Why?
 The pollen grains were pushed around by the random movements of the water
particles around them.
 But how? Water particles are tiny compared to pollen grains.
 The answer lies in the speed of the water particles – on average, a
 water particle moves faster than 1600 km/h at 20 °C.
 Summary

● Diffusion is the random movement and mixing of particles.

● Diffusion happens faster at higher temperatures.
● Big, heavy particles diffuse slower than smaller, lighter
particles.
● Diffusion is quicker in gases than in liquids. Solid diffusion is
very slow.
Lesson3 Explaining density

Objectives
■ Use a formula to calculate density
■ Explain why different substances have different densities

Keywords
Density
Mass
Volume
What is density?
Ravi is a weightlifter. His dumbbells are made from iron.
 Why not make dumbbells from aluminium or wood

Iron dumbbells are heavier than aluminium dumbbells of the same size.
This is because iron has a greater density than aluminium.
 Density is how heavy something is for its size. A 1 cm3 cube of iron is heavier than a 1 cm3
cube of aluminium.

Ravi lifts iron dumbbells.

Bikram’s are made from aluminium.
 Density can be define as the ratio of mass per unit volume.

Density = mass the unit of mass is gram(g) while the unit

volume of volume is centmiter-cube (cm3)

 The density of a substance depends on the mass of its particles and how closely
packed its particles are.
 The density of a substance depends on two things:
● The mass of its particles
● How closely packed its particles are.
Closeness of particles
 The particles of a substance in the liquid state are more closely packed than the particles in the
gas state.
 The liquid has a greater density than the gas.
 The pictures show the mass of 500 cm3 of liquid water compared to 500 cm 3 of steam.
 The mass of the bottle is 20 g. For most substances, the solid density is greater than the liquid
density.
 This is because the solid particles are packed more closely. Water is different. At 0 °C the
particles in ice are packed less closely than the particles in liquid water.
 Ice has a lower density than liquid water. This explains why ice floats on water.
Using density
 About 1000 years ago, al-Biruni of Persia studied gemstones.
 He collected data on their colour and hardness. He calculated their densities, and
used density values to identify gems.
 Al-Biruni used the apparatus shown here to measure the volume of gemstones.
 He found their mass and calculated their density.
 Summary

● density = mass
volume
● The density of a substance depends on the mass of its particles and how
closely packed its particles are
Lesson 4 Explaining gas pressure

Objectives
■ Explain what causes gas pressure
■ Explain air pressure and its effect on boiling point
■ Explain how temperature affects gas pressure
Keywords

Collide
Pressure
Air pressure
Explaining gas pressure
 Raj blows up a balloon. The balloon gets bigger and bigger. Why?
 When Raj starts blowing, air particles enter the balloon.
 The particles move quickly in all directions. They bump into, or collide with, the rubber.
 The colliding particles exert a force on the rubber, and push it outwards.
 The force per unit area is called pressure.
 As Raj continues blowing, more air particles enter the balloon. The balloon gets bigger
How does temperature affect gas pressure?
 Raj ties up his balloon. He leaves it in a warm room. The balloon gets even bigger. Why?
 The air particles inside the balloon warm up. They move faster.
 They hit each other, and the sides of the container, more often.
 The air pressure inside the balloon has increased.
 In the warm balloon, the faster moving particles are further apart.
 This is why the balloon gets bigger. Saniyah puts a plastic bottle in a freezer.
 The air in the bottle cools down. The particles move more slowly.
 They hit each other, and the inside of the bottle, less often.
 The pressure inside the bottle has decreased. The bottle collapses.
Air pressure
 Tirto lives in Padang, a city by the sea. He visits the mountains. He feels breathless. Why?
 Air particles collide with you all the time.
 The force exerted by these particles per unit area is air pressure.
 The pressure does not squash you because you have air inside your body too.
 Air pressure depends on how high up you are. At the top of a mountain there is less air pressing down on you than
there is at sea level.
 The air pressure is less at the top of the mountain.
 At the top of the mountain, air particles are further apart than they are at sea level.
 You need to breathe more often to take in enough oxygen.
 People who live in the mountains all the time don’t breathe more often than people who live at sea level.
 Their bodies have adapted to the lower air pressure.
Air pressure and boiling point
 Bubu heats liquid water. Water particles leave the surface of the liquid.
 These particles form a vapour above the liquid.
 Water boils when the pressure of the vapour above the liquid is the same as the air pressure
around the liquid.
 This explains why boiling point changes with altitude (height above sea level).
 The higher the altitude, the lower the air pressure.
 The lower the air pressure, the lower the temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to
the air pressure.
 Summary
● Gas pressure is caused by particles colliding with the walls of a container.
● The higher the temperature, the greater the gas pressure.