BUSI 1055 Organisation

Behaviour

Lecture 4
Work Motivation and Job
Performance

Dr. Mathew Abraham

Associate Professor of Organisation Behaviour
03/05/23 NUBS 1
Learning Outcomes
Students should be able to:
 Describe & evaluate the following
motivational theories
 Content theories
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 Alderfer’s ERG theory

 Herzberg’s Two factor theory

 Mc Clelland

 Process Theories
 Expectancy based models
 Equity theory

 Goal setting theory

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Learning Outcomes (2)
Students should be able to:
 Describe & evaluate the following
management theories
 Social Cognitive Theory
 Job Commitment Model
 Job Enrichment Principles

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Introduction
Defining Motivation
No single definition, over 140 in the
literature (Kleinginna & Kleinginna,
1981)
 ‘Work motivation is a set of internal and
external forces that initiate work related
behaviour and determine its form,
direction, intensity and duration’ (Pinder,
1998)
 ‘Motivation, the cognitive decision making
process through which goal directed
behaviour is initiated, energized, directed
and maintained’ (Buchanan & Huczynski,
2010)

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Motivation
 Defined as the psychological forces
within a person that determine:
1) direction of behavior in an organization;
2) the effort or how hard people work;
3) the persistence displayed in meeting goals.
 Intrinsic Motivation: behavior
performed for its own sake.
 Motivation comes from performing the work.
 Extrinsic Motivation: behavior
performed to acquire rewards.
 Motivation source is the consequence of an
action.
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Explore how Starbucks motivates
its partners

1. Whatneeds is Starbucks
attempting to satisfy for its retail
partners?
http://www.starbucks.com/careers/retail-careers

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self Actualisation Needs

Highest needs level: need to fulfill one’s self, to grow and to
use abilities their fullest & most creative extent

Esteem Needs
Need for esteem of others, respect, prestige, recognition, self-
esteem & a personal sense of competence

Social Needs
Need for love, affection & a sense of belonging in one’s relationship
with other persons

Safety Needs
Need for security, protection & stability in the physical and
interpersonal; needs to do with the events of daily life

Physiological Needs
Basic human needs, such as need for biological maintenance, food,
water, sex, etc
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
 Some problems with the theory:
 Assumes that satisfaction is the main
motivational driver which will filter through to
higher productivity
 It lacks empirical support (Lowry, 1982)
 It is occupationally biased, male biased (Cullen,
1994)
 The needs hierarchy legitimates exploitation
(Knights & Wilmott, 1974)
 Do people only seek out others once they have
enough to eat? (Watson, 1996)
 It is based on a Westernised ideal of self-
actualization
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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
 In defence of the theory:
 Maslow did not intend his theory to be an
explanation of motivation in the workplace
 It has been uncritically adopted ‘as if it were
true’ rather than as an interesting set of
observations about what motivates us
(Fincham & Rhodes, 2005)
 It probably works better in conditions of
relatively full employment
 It does allow for finding imagination and
creativity in people.
 Influential theory but can not predict behaviour

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 Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory
 Existence Needs: Basic needs for
human survival such as the need for
food, water, clothing, shelter, and a
secure and safe environment.
 Relatedness Needs: The needs to
have good interpersonal relations, to
share thoughts and feelings, and to
have open two-way communication.
 Growth Needs: The needs for self-
development and creative and
productive work.
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Differences from Maslow’s Theory
 Reduces the number of universal needs from
five to three.
 No rigid hierarchy:
 A higher-level need can be a motivator even if a
lower-level need is not fully satisfied.
 Needs at more than one level can be motivators at
any time.
 When an individual is motivated to satisfy a
higher-level need but has difficulty doing so,
his/her motivation to satisfy lower-level needs
will increase.
 Some problems with the theory
 Little empirical support (Rauschenberger et al 1980)
 Resonates with management writers but less well
known than Maslow
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Frederick Herzberg’s Needs Typology
(Hygiene & Motivating Factors)
 Hygiene factors – continuum
ranging from dissatisfaction to no
dissatisfaction.
 Eg. Pay, Interpersonal relations,
supervision, company policy, work
conditions, job security…etc
 The factors do not serve to promote
job satisfaction, but their absence
can create job dissatisfaction.

Source; Linstead S., et al 2004

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Frederick Herzberg’s Needs Typology
(Hygiene & Motivating Factors)
 Motivating factors – continuum ranging
from no satisfaction to satisfaction.
 Eg. Challenges in job, recognition, scope for
achievement, advancement, & greater
responsibility.
 2 assumptions of nature of people the
need to avoid pain & need to grow.
 Hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction &
pain by providing good environment or
work context
 Motivation factors enable growth towards
self-actualisation. Source: Linstead S., et al 2004
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 Contrasting Views Of Satisfaction-
Dissatisfaction
Traditional View

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s View

Motivators Hygienes
Satisfaction No Satisfaction No Dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

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Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
Theory

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Herzberg’s two factor theory
 Some problems with the theory:
 Used accountants and engineers,
middle-class bias in the research
 Wider sample may have produced
different results
 Using critical incidence technique with
self report – people may say one thing
motivates them when it may be
something else

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Dynamic View of Needs
 David McClelland (1961)
 Need for achievement
 Desire to reach goals, tackle challenges,
generally competitive, moderately difficult
goals, actively seek feedback about
performance.
 Need for power
 Desire to influence, control others.
 Need for affiliation
 Desire to make friends, to form personal
bonds, interested in how others feel.

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Comparison of Maslow’s, Alderfer’s, Herzberg’s,
and McClelland’s Motivation Theories.

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Process Theories Of Motivation -
Equity Theory
 proposes that employees perceive what they
get from a job (outcomes) in relation to
what they put into it (inputs)
 input/outcome ratio compared with the
ratios of relevant others
 equity - ratio is equal to that of relevant
others
 inequity - ratio is unequal to that of
relevant others
 referent (relevant other) may be:
 other - individuals with similar jobs
 a system - includes organizational pay policies
and administrative systems
 self - past personal experiences and contacts
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Equity Theory

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Process Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory (cont.)
 when inequities are perceived,
employees act to correct the
situation
 distort either their own or others’ inputs
or outputs
 behave in a way to induce others to
change their inputs or outputs
 behave in a way to change their own
inputs or outputs
 choose a different comparison person
 quit their jobs
 theory leaves some issues unclear
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Equity theory
 Some problems with the theory:
 It is actually quite a robust theory and
has been found to have predictive
potential
 Can not predict how someone will react
to inequity – just that they will react
 Very useful for understanding why
people become dissatisfied at work
 Some people are more ‘equity
sensitive’ than others

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Process Theories of Motivation -
Expectancy Theory
 A process theory about work motivation
that focuses on how workers make
choices among alternative behaviors and
levels of effort.
 Two main questions are addressed:
 Do individuals believe that their inputs will
result in a given level of performance?
 Do individuals believe that performance at
this level will lead to obtaining outcomes they
desire?
 Keys to the theory:
 Valence
 Instrumentality
 Expectancy

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 Process Theories Of Motivation
- Expectancy Theory
 theory states that an individual tends to act in a
certain way based on the expectation that the act
will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual
 Expectancy (effort-performance linkage) -
perceived probability that exerting a given
amount of effort will lead to a certain level of
performance
 Instrumentality (performance-reward linkage)
- strength of belief that performing at a
particular level is instrumental in attaining an
outcome
 Valence - attractiveness or importance of the
potential outcome
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Elements in the expectancy theory of
motivation.

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 Process Theories of Motivation -
Expectancy Theory

Quality of
effort put forth
depends on. . .

…expectations …and expectations …attractiveness of

of of rewards relative to

Individual Individual Organizational Individual

Effort Performance Rewards Goals

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Process Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Theory (cont.)
 Theory emphasizes rewards
 organizational rewards must align with
the individual’s wants
 no universal principle for explaining
what motivates individuals
 managers must understand why employees
view certain outcomes as attractive or
unattractive
 most comprehensive and widely
accepted explanation of employee
motivation
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Expectancy Theory:
Employee Questions

 What is the probability

that I can perform at
the required level if I
try?
 What is the likelihood
my performance will
lead to the desired
outcomes?
 What value do I place
on the outcome?

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How to Use Expectancy Theory
 Determine rewards valued by
employees.
 Evaluate performance level
you seek.
 Make performance level
attainable.
 Tie rewards to performance
 Make reward valuable to
employee.

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Process theories
Expectancy theories: An example

 Google focuses on understanding what

employees value most and then using
this data to boost employee retention
(e.g., personalised performance
incentives)
 Laszlo Bock (Vice president Google
‘People Operations’)
 "It's not the company-provided Laszlo
lunch that keeps people Bock
here. Googlers tell us that there are
three reasons they stay: The
mission, the quality of the people,
and the chance to build the skill set
of a better leader or entrepreneur”
(Davenport et al., 2010)
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Expectancy based theories
 Some problems with the theories:
 Do we actually engage in cost-benefit
analysis before thinking about working
harder?
 The theorists differ:
 Porter and Lawler developed the theory
to argue that improved performance
leads to greater satisfaction this
contrasts directly to Herzberg who
argued that satisfaction leads to
improved performance

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Process Theories Of Motivation
Goal Setting Theory
 intention to work toward a goal is a major
source of job motivation
 specific goals increase performance
 difficult goal, when accepted, results in
higher performance than does an easy goal
 specific hard goals produce a higher level
of output than does the generalized goal of
“do your best”
 participation in goal setting is useful
 reduces resistance to accepting difficult
goals
 increases goal acceptance
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Process Theories Of Motivation
Goal Setting Theory (cont.)
 Feedback is useful
 helps identify discrepancies between what has
been accomplished and what needs to be done
 self-generated feedback is a powerful
motivator
 contingencies in goal-setting theory
 goal commitment - theory presupposes that
individual is determined to accomplish the goal
 most likely to occur when:
 goals are made public
 individual has an internal locus of control
 goals are self-set rather than assigned

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Some critique of theory
 Content theories are vague, can’t predict
behaviour, but have been very influential in
job redesign and fashions of management
e.g. TQM
 They assume that everyone wants
enriched work to same intensity

 Process theories are more complex

 Taken together do they have something

useful to offer?

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Usefulness of the theories
 Herzberg’s ideas have led to the job
enrichment redesign principles (Hackman &
Oldham, 1975; 1980)
 Still criticised by management scholars but
influential at work

 The hierarchy of needs has been adopted to

include social influences and differences
between individuals (McClelland, 1961 need
to achieve, for power and to affiliate)

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Recent Motivation Theories
 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
 SCT is based on recognition that
behaviour is determined by reciprocal
determinism among three elements
 Person’s cognition & other personal
factors
 The environment with opportunities,

limitations & consequences

 Persons behaviour which produces

changes and outcomes in both of the

other elements.

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Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
 Vicarious learning
 Learning through observation
of others
 Dynamics of self-control
 Autonomous determination and
adjustment of behavior without
simultaneous environmental
influence
 Self-efficacy
 Belief about one’s ability to
perform a particular behaviour
in specific circumstance
successfully. 37
Job Commitment Model
 Three Component Model of Commitment
(Meyer, J and Allen, N. 1991. Human Resource Management Review). 

 The three components are:

 Affection for your job ("affective
commitment”)
 emotional attachment to you job and organisation
 Fear of loss ("continuance commitment")
 pros & cons of leaving your organisation
 Sense of obligation to stay ("normative
commitment")
 sense of obligation to the organisation although
you may be unhappy with your job.

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Job Characteristics Model –
Hackman & Oldham
 Comprehensive Model of Job Enrichment – 5 core job
dimensions:
 Skill variety – extent to which a job entails different activities
& involves a range of different skills & talents.
 Task identity – extent to which a job involves completion of a
whole piece of work with a visible outcome.
 Task significance – the extent to which a job has a meaningful
impact on other people, either inside or outside the
organisation.
 Autonomy – the extent which a job provides freedom,
independence & discretion in planning work & determining
how to undertake it.
 Feedback – extent to which work activities result in direct &
clear information on effectiveness of job performance
Source: Mullins, 2004, p. 660-661
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 Job Characteristics Model
Core Job Critical Personal and
Dimensions Psychological States Work Outcomes
High Internal
Skill Variety Experienced Work Motivation
Task Identity meaningfulness
Task Significance of the work
High-Quality
Work Performance
Experienced responsibility
Autonomy
for outcomes of work
High Satisfaction
with the Work
Knowledge of the actual
Feedback Low Absenteeism
results of the work
and Turnover

Strength of Employee
Growth Need
Criticisms on Job Enrichment
 More appropriate for professional jobs.
 Suited for individual rather than group tasks.
 Presumes universal fixed needs for all workers,
unable to accommodate changing needs.
 Fails to address contextual factors in redesigning
work, eg. unions, technology, wages, salaries &
supervisory levels.
 More of management’s perception
 Motivation seekers always need and welcome job
enrichment, assumes continuous consensus
between management & workers regarding job
redesign.
 Little attention to allowing worker participation in
job redesign strategy.
Source: Linstead S., et al 2004
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Usefulness of the theories
 Motivation research has influence in many
of today’s ‘hot’ topics, organizational
citizenship behaviour, work teams,
discretionary behaviours (O’Reilly, 1991;
Ambrose & Kulik, 1999)
 The concepts of identity and sense making
may have been influenced by the
development of the earlier theories of
motivation
 Future concern may be about removing
barriers that hinder performance
 Professionals and knowledge workers do
not need motivating; careers work as
drivers (Jacques, 1999)
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What really influences employee
motivation and performance

https://hbr.org/video/4701966304001/what-really-influ
ences-employee-motivation

Harvard Business Review Video

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Summary
 There are many competing theories attempting
to explain motivation at work. Critics say
managing motivation implies manipulation and is
a remnant of the factory system (Jacques, 1996).
 McKenna (1999) says the topic of motivation has
lost its relevance and needs to be replaced with
concepts like; sense-making and identity.
 Earlier approaches to job design concentrated on
restructuring of individual jobs.
 Increasing business competitiveness &
recognition of need for effective use of HR have
highlighted the importance of employee
involvement & empowerment.

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