تماثلية 1

ANALOG
Us Mohamed Hyder 1
‫التخصص ‪:‬قدرة‪ -‬تحكم‬ ‫القسم‪ :‬هندسة كهرباء‬
‫العام الدراسي‪2020 /2019 :‬م – الفصل الدراسي األول‬
‫المقرر‪ :‬تماثلية‬ ‫الفرقة‪ :‬الثالثة‬
‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Atoms :‬‬

‫رقم المحاضرة‪1 :‬‬
‫اعداد وتقديم استاذ‪ :‬محمد حيدر مكي صدق‬

‫‪2‬‬
An atom refresher
 Matter is anything that takes up space and has
mass.
 All matter is made of atoms
 Atoms are the building blocks of matter, sort of
how bricks are the building blocks of houses.
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An atom refresher
 An atom has three
parts:
 Proton = positive
 Neutron = no charge
 Electron = negative
 The proton & neutron

are found in the center Picture from
http://education.jlab.org/qa/atom_model_03.gif
of the atom, a place

called the nucleus.
 The electrons orbit the
nucleus.
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What are elements?
 Elements are the
alphabet to the language
of molecules.
 To make molecules, you
must have elements.
 Elements are made of
atoms. While the atoms
may have different
weights and
organization, they are all
built in the same way.
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More about Elements..
 Elements are the
building blocks of all
matter.
 The periodic table is a
list of all of the
elements that can build
matter. It’s a little like
the alphabet of
chemistry.
 The periodic table tells
us several things…
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Periodic Table
Atomic Number:
Number of protons
and it is also the 8
number of electrons
O
Element’s
in an atom Symbol:
of an
An abbreviation
element. for
the element.
Elements Name
Oxygen
Atomic Mass/Weight: 16
Number of protons +
neutrons.
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Atom Models
 There are two models of the atoms we will be
using in class.
 Bohr Model
 Quantum Model
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Bohr Model
 The Bohr Model
-
shows all of the
particles in the
atom. +
 In the center is +
circles. Each circle

represents a single -
neutron or proton.
Protons should
have a plus or P
written on them.
Neutrons should be
blank or have an N.
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
Electrons have special rules….
 You can’t just shove all of the electrons
into the first orbit of an electron.
 Electrons live in something called shells
or energy levels.
 Only so many can be in any certain
shell.
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Nucleus
1st shell
2nd shell
3rd shell
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Electrons have special rules….
 You can’t just shove all of the electrons
into the first orbit of an electron.
 Electrons live in something called shells
or energy levels.
 Only so many can be in any certain

shell.
 The electrons in the outer most shell of
any element are called valance
electrons.
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Valence Electrons
 The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom
are called valence electrons.
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Ionization
 is the process by which an atom or a molecule
acquires a negative or positive charge by
gaining or losing electrons. Ionization, often,
results from the interaction of an atom or a
molecule with an ionizing particle, including
charged particles with sufficient energies and
energetic photons.
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Quantum Model of the Atom
 In the modern (quantum) model of the atom,
electrons are found in regions of space called
orbitals
 Orbitals are clouds of probability where
electrons are most likely to be found
 The shape of these clouds is the result of
plotting the solutions to very complicated
mathematical equations
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So let’s try it….
 How to draw a Lithium atom
 First, look at the Periodic Table
 Second, determine the number of
protons (Look @ the atomic number)
 Then determine the number of
neutrons (Atomic mass – atomic 3
number)
 Then determine the number of
electrons (Look @ the atomic
Li
number)
Lithium
7
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So let’s try it…. Protons = 3
- 3
+
Li
+ +
-
Lithium
- 7
Electrons = 3
2 in the 1st shell, 1 in the 2nd shell
Neutrons = 4
(7-3=4)
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‫عنوان المحاضرة‪P N junction:‬‬


‫‪19‬‬
MATERIAL USED IN ELECTRONICS
 Conductors: Materials with many free
electrons. These electrons can easily be made to
flow through the material.
 Insulators: Materials that have very few free
electrons.
 Semiconductors: These materials lie between
the extremes of good conductors and good
insulators. They are crystalline materials that
are insulators when pure, but will conduct
when an impurity is added and/or in response
to light, heat, voltage, etc.
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Band Gap
 Conductors:
 Outermost band not completely filled
 Essentially no band gap
 overlap
 lots of available energy states if field is
applied
 Metals and Alkali metals
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 Semiconductors:
 Similar to insulators but narrow band gap
 At electrical temperatures some electrons
can be promoted to the conduction band
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Silicon and Germanium
 Solid state electronics arises from the unique

properties of silicon and germanium, each of
which has four valence electrons and which
form crystal lattices in which substituted atoms
(dopants) can dramatically change the electrical
properties.
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Silicon
 In solid state electronics, either pure silicon or

germanium may be used as the
intrinsic semiconductor which forms the
starting point for fabrication. Each has four
valence electrons, but germanium will at a
given temperature have more free electrons
and a higher conductivity. Silicon is by far the
more widely used semiconductor for
electronics, partly because it can be used at
much higher temperatures than germanium.
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Covalent Bond
 Between nonmetallic elements of similar
electronegativity.
 Formed by sharing electron pairs
 Stable non-ionizing particles, they are not
conductors at any state
 Examples; O2, CO2, C2H6, H2O, SiC
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N-type MATERIAL
 Doping:To make the semiconductor conduct
electricity, other atoms called impurities must
be added, “Impurities” are different elements.
This process is called doping.
 An impurity, or element like arsenic, has 5
valence electrons.
 Adding arsenic (doping) will allow four of the
arsenic valence electrons to bond with the
neighboring silicon atoms.
 The one electron left over for each arsenic atom
becomes available to conduct current flow.
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P-type MATERIAL
 You can also dope a semiconductor material
with an atom such as boron that has only 3
valence electrons.
 The 3 electrons in the outer orbit do form
covalent bonds with its neighboring
semiconductor atoms as before. But one
electron is missing from the bond.
 This place where a fourth electron should be is
referred to as a hole.
 The hole assumes a positive charge so it can
attract electrons from some other source.
 Holes become a type of current carrier like the
electron to support current flow.
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Types of Semiconductor Materials
 The silicon doped with extra electrons is called
an “N type” semiconductor.
 “N” is for negative, which is the charge of an
electron.
 Silicon doped with material missing electrons
that produce locations called holes is called “P
type” semiconductor.
 “P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.
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CURRENT IN SEMICONDUCTORS
 The DC voltage source has a positive terminal
that attracts the free electrons in the
semiconductor and pulls them away from their
atoms leaving the atoms charged positively.
 Electrons from the negative terminal of the
supply enter the semiconductor material and
are attracted by the positive charge of the
atoms missing one of their electrons.
 Current (electrons) flows from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal.
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Current Flow in P-type Semiconductors
 Electrons from the negative supply terminal
are attracted to the positive holes and fill them.
 The positive terminal of the supply pulls the
electrons from the holes leaving the holes to
attract more electrons.
 Current (electrons) flows from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal.
 Inside the semiconductor current flow is
actually by the movement of the holes from
positive to negative.
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P-N JUNCTION
 On its own a p-type or n-type semiconductor is

not very useful. However when combined very
useful devices can be made.
 The p-n junction can be formed by allowing a
p-type material to diffuse into a n-type region
at high temperatures.
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 Free electrons on the n-side and free holes on
the p-side can initially diffuse across the
junction. Uncovered charges are left in the
neighbourhood of the junction.

This region is depleted of mobile carriers and

is called the DEPLETION REGION (thickness
0.5 – 1.0 µm).
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 The diffusion of electrons and holes stop due to
the barrier p.d (p.d across the junction)
reaching some critical value.
 The barrier p.d (or the contact potential)
depends on the type of semiconductor,
temperature and doping densities.
 At room temperature, typical values of barrier
p.d. are:
 Ge ~ 0.2 – 0.4 V
 Si ~ 0.6 – 0.8 V
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‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Diode and application:‬‬


‫‪39‬‬
DIODES
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Table of Contents
 What are diodes made out of?____________________slide 3

 N-type material_________________________________slide 4
 P-type material_________________________________slide 5
 The pn junction____________________________slides 6-7
 The biased pn junction______________________slides 8-9
 Properties of diodes_______________________slides 10-11
 Diode Circuit Models _____________________slides 12-16
 The Q Point______________________________slides 17-18
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What Are Diodes Made Out Of?
 S  S  S
 Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) 
i
+ 
i
+ 
i
+
are the two most common single 4 4 4
 S
elements that are used to make i
 S
i
 S
i
Diodes.  +
 +
4
 +
4
4
 Silicon and Germanium are both  S  S  S
i i i
group 4 elements, meaning they  +  +  +
have 4 valence electrons. Their 4 4 4
structure allows them to grow

in a shape called the diamond
lattice.
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N-Type Material
 N-Type Material:  When extra valence electrons

are introduced into a
material such as silicon an n-
type material is produced.
The extra valence electrons
are introduced by putting
impurities or dopants into
the silicon.
Us Mohamed Hyder 43
P-Type Material
P-Type Material:
 P-type material is produced
when the dopant that is
introduced is from Group III.
Group III elements have only 3
valence electrons and therefore
there is an electron missing.
This creates a hole (h+), or a
positive charge that can move
around in the material.
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The PN Junction
 Steady State1
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The PN Junction
 Space Charge Region: Also called

the depletion region. This region
includes the net positively and
negatively charged regions. The
space charge region does not have
any free carriers. The width of the
space charge region is denoted by W
in pn junction formula’s.
 Metallurgical Junction: The
interface where the p- and n-type
materials meet.
 Na & Nd: Represent the amount of When no external source is
negative and positive doping in connected to the pn junction,
number of carriers per centimeter diffusion and drift balance
cubed. Usually in the range of 1015 each other out for both the
to 1020. holes and electrons
Us Mohamed Hyder 46
‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Diode Operayion:‬‬


‫‪47‬‬
The Biased PN Junction
The pn junction is considered biased

when an external voltage is applied.
There are two types of biasing: Forward
bias and Reverse bias.
These are described on then next slide.
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The Biased PN Junction
 Forward Bias:
 Vapplied > 0
 In forward bias the depletion region shrinks slightly in width. With this shrinking
the energy required for charge carriers to cross the depletion region decreases
exponentially. Therefore, as the applied voltage increases, current starts to flow
across the junction. The barrier potential of the diode is the voltage at which
appreciable current starts to flow through the diode. The barrier potential varies
for different materials.
 Reverse Bias:
 Vapplied < 0
 Under reverse bias the depletion region widens. This causes the electric field
produced by the ions to cancel out the applied reverse bias voltage. A small
leakage current, Is (saturation current) flows under reverse bias conditions. This
saturation current is made up of electron-hole pairs being produced in the
depletion region. Saturation current is sometimes referred to as scale current
because of it’s relationship to junction temperature.
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Properties of Diodes
 VD = Bias Voltage
 ID = Current through Diode. ID
is Negative for Reverse Bias
and Positive for Forward Bias
 IS = Saturation Current
 VBR = Breakdown Voltage
 V = Barrier Potential Voltage
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Diode Circuit Models
The Ideal Diode Model

 The diode is designed to allow current to flow
in only one direction. The perfect diode would
be a perfect conductor in one direction
(forward bias) and a perfect insulator in the
other direction (reverse bias). In many
situations, using the ideal diode approximation
is acceptable.
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 Example: Assume the diode in the circuit below is ideal. Determine
the value of ID if a) VA = 5 volts (forward bias) and b) VA = -5 volts
(reverse bias)
 a) With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is acting like a perfect
conductor so:
 ID = VA/RS = 5 V / 50  = 100 mA
 b) With VA < 0 the diode is in reverse bias and is acting like a perfect
insulator, therefore no current can flow and I D = 0.
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 The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential
 This model is more accurate than the simple ideal diode model
because it includes the approximate barrier potential voltage.
Remember the barrier potential voltage is the voltage at which
appreciable current starts to flow.
 Example: To be more accurate than just using the ideal diode
model include the barrier potential. Assume V = 0.3 volts (typical
for a germanium diode) Determine the value of ID if VA = 5
volts (forward bias).
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 With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is
acting like a perfect conductor so write a KVL
equation to find ID:
 0 = VA – IDRS - V
 ID =( VA - V )/ RS = 4.7 V/ 50  = 94 mA

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The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential and Linear Forward

Resistance
 This model is the most accurate of the three. It includes a
linear forward resistance that is calculated from the slope of
the linear portion of the transconductance curve. However,
this is usually not necessary since the RF (forward resistance)
value is pretty constant. For low-power germanium and
silicon diodes the RF value is usually in the 2 to 5 ohms range,
while higher power diodes have a RF value closer to 1 ohm.
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 The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential and

Linear Forward Resistance
 Example: Assume the diode is a low-power
diode with a forward resistance value of 5
ohms. The barrier potential voltage is still: V
= 0.3 volts (typical for a germanium diode)
Determine the value of ID if VA = 5 volts.
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 Once again, write a KVL equation for the
circuit:
 0 = VA – IDRS - V - IDRF
 ID = ( VA - V )/ (RS + RF ) =
 (5 – 0.3)/(50 + 5) = 85.5 mA
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 Values of ID for the Three Different Diode Circuit Models
 These are the values found in the examples on previous slides

where the applied voltage was 5 volts, the barrier potential was
0.3 volts and the linear forward resistance value was assumed to
be 5 ohms
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The Q Point
 The operating point or Q point of the diode is the quiescent or no-signal

condition. The Q point is obtained graphically and is really only needed
when the applied voltage is very close to the diode’s barrier potential
voltage. The example 3 below that is continued on the next slide, shows
how the Q point is determined using the transconductance curve and the
load line.
 First the load line is found by substituting in different values of V into
the equation for ID using the ideal diode with barrier potential model for
the diode. With RS at 1000 ohms the value of RF wouldn’t have much
impact on the results.
ID = (VA – V  )/ RS
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 Using V  values of 0 volts and 1.4 volts we obtain ID values of 6
mA and 4.6 mA respectively. Next we will draw the line
connecting these two points on the graph with the
transconductance curve. This line is the load line.
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Dynamic Resistance
 The dynamic resistance of the diode is mathematically determined

as the inverse of the slope of the transconductance curve.
Therefore, the equation for dynamic resistance is: rF = VT / ID
 The dynamic resistance is used in determining the voltage drop
across the diode in the situation where a voltage source is
supplying a sinusoidal signal with a dc offset.
 The ac component of the diode voltage is found using the
following equation: vF = vac rF /(rF + RS)
 The voltage drop through the diode is a combination of the ac and
dc components and is equal to: VD = V + vF
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Dynamic Resistance
 Example: Use the same circuit used for the Q point example but
change the voltage source so it is an ac source with a dc offset.
The source voltage is now, vin = 6 + sin(wt) Volts. It is a silicon
diode so the barrier potential voltage is still 0.7 volts
Us Mohamed Hyder 63
The DC component of the circuit is the same as the previous example
and therefore ID = 6V – 0.7 V = 5.2 mA
1000 
rF = VT / ID = 1 * 26 mV = 4.9 
5.3 mA
h = 1 is a good approximation if the dc current is greater than 1 mA
as it is in this example.
vF = vac rF / ( rF + RS) = sin(wt) V 4.9 / (4.9  + 1000 ) =
4.88 sin(wt) mV
 Therefore, VD = 700 + 4.9 sin (wt) mV (the voltage drop across
the diode)
Us Mohamed Hyder 64
The Complete Diode Model
 The complete model of a diode is the most
accurate approximation and includes the
barrier potential, the small forward dynamic
resistance (r’d), and the large internal reverse
resistance (r’R). The reverse resistance is taken
into account because it provides a path for the
reverse current, which is included in this diode
model.
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‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Rectifiers:‬‬

‫‪72‬‬
RECTIFIERS
Power Supply
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 Transformer
 Rectifier
 Filter
 Regulator
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Half-Wave Rectifier Operation
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Average Value of the Half-Wave Output
Voltage
 The average value of the half-wave rectified
output voltage is the value you would measure
on a dc voltmeter.
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Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-
Wave Rectifier Output
 When the practical diode model is used with
the barrier potential of 0.7 V taken into account.
 Vp(out) = Vp(in) - 0.7 V
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Transformer Coupling
 The amount that the voltage is stepped down is
determined by the turns ratio of the
transformer. the number of turns in the
secondary (Nsec) divided by the number of
turns in the primary (Npri).”
 The secondary voltage of a transformer equals
the turns ratio, n, times the primary voltage.
 Vsec = nVpri
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FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS
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Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Operation
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Vout = (V sec/2)-0.7 V
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Vp(sec) = 2Vp(out) + 1.4 V
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Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Operation
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Vp(out) = Vp(sec)
Vp(out) = Vp(sec) -1.4 V
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‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Power supply Filter :‬‬


‫‪89‬‬
POWER SUPPLY FILTERS
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r = Vr(pp)/VDC
Vr(pp) ≈ (1/fRLC) Vp(rect)
VDC≈ (1-1/fRLC) Vp(rect)
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Diode Limiters
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‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Diode Applicaion :‬‬


‫‪97‬‬
Diode Limiters
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Biased Limiters
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Biased Limiters
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Biased Limiters

Voltage-Divider Bias

Diode Clampers

Voltage Doubler:
VC1 - VC2 + Vp = 0,VC2 = Vp + VC1

Neglecting the diode drop of D2, VC1 =Vp.
Therefore,VC2 = Vp + Vp = 2Vp

Voltage Doubler:

Voltage Tripler

Voltage Quadrupler

‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Zener Diode :‬‬


‫‪110‬‬
zener diode
 The basic function of zener diode is to
maintain a specific voltage across its terminals
within given limits of line or load change.
Typically it is used for providing a stable
reference voltage for use in power supplies and
other equipment.

Zener Diodes
 A zener diode is much like a normal diode, the exception being is
that it is placed in the circuit in reverse bias and operates in
reverse breakdown. This typical characteristic curve illustrates the
operating range for a zener. Note that its forward characteristics
are just like a normal diode.

Zener Diodes
 The zener diode’s breakdown characteristics are determined by
the doping process. Low voltage zeners less than 5V operate in the
zener breakdown range. Those designed to operate more than 5 V
operate mostly in avalanche breakdown range. Zeners are
available with voltage breakdowns of 1.8 V to 200 V.

‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Special types of Diode:‬‬


‫‪114‬‬
Types of Diodes and Their Uses
 PN Junction Diodes:
 Are used to allow current to flow in one
direction while blocking current flow in the
opposite direction. The pn junction diode is
the typical diode that has been used in the
previous circuits.

 Zener Diodes:
 Are specifically designed to operate under
reverse breakdown conditions. These diodes
have a very accurate and specific reverse
breakdown voltage.

 Schottky Diodes:
 These diodes are designed to have a very fast
switching time which makes them a great
diode for digital circuit applications. They are
very common in computers because of their
ability to be switched on and off so quickly.

 Shockley Diodes:
 The Shockley diode is a four-layer diode while
other diodes are normally made with only two
layers. These types of diodes are generally
used to control the average power delivered to
a load.

 Light-Emitting Diodes:
 Light-emitting diodes are designed with a very large bandgap so
movement of carriers across their depletion region emits photons
of light energy. Lower bandgap LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes)
emit infrared radiation, while LEDs with higher bandgap energy
emit visible light. Many stop lights are now starting to use LEDs
because they are extremely bright and last longer than regular
bulbs for a relatively low cost.

‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Transistor‬‬

‫‪120‬‬
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
(BJT) STRUCTURE

Biasing

 DC Beta (BDC) and DC Alpha (άDC):
 The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of
the dc collector current (IC) to the dc base
current (IB) and is designated dc beta (ßDC).
ßDC = IC/ IB
 The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the
dc emitter current (IE) is the dc alpha (άDC).
The alpha is a less-used parameter than beta in
transistor circuits.
άdc= IC/ IE
 Example:
Determine the dc current gain ßDC and the emitter
current IE for a transistor where
IB = 50 µA and IC = 3.65 mA.
ßDC = IC/ IB =3.65 mA/50 µA = 73
IE = IC + IB = 3.65 mA + 50 µA = 3.70 mA

BJT Circuit Analysis
 Three transistor dc currents and three dc voltages can be
identified.
 IB: dc base current
 IE: dc emitter current
 IC: dc collector current
 VBE: dc voltage at base with respect to emitter
 VCB: dc voltage at collector with respect to base
 VCE: dc voltage at collector with respect to emitter

VBE ≈0.7 V
VRB = VBB – VBE
VRB = IBRB
IBRB = VBB - VBE
IB = (VBB- VBE)/ RB
VCE = VCC - VRC
VRC = ICRC
VCE = VCC - ICRC
VCB= VCE - VBE


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‫المقرر‪ :‬تماثلية‬ ‫الفرقة‪ :‬الثالثة‬

‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Atoms :‬‬

‫اعداد وتقديم استاذ‪ :‬محمد حيدر مكي صدق‬

 The proton & neutron

of the atom, a place

circles. Each circle

 Only so many can be in any certain

‫المقرر‪ :‬تماثلية‬ ‫الفرقة‪ :‬الثالثة‬

‫عنوان المحاضرة‪P N junction:‬‬

‫اعداد وتقديم استاذ‪ :‬محمد حيدر مكي صدق‬

 Solid state electronics arises from the unique

 In solid state electronics, either pure silicon or

 On its own a p-type or n-type semiconductor is

This region is depleted of mobile carriers and

‫المقرر‪ :‬تماثلية‬ ‫الفرقة‪ :‬الثالثة‬

‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Diode and application:‬‬

‫اعداد وتقديم استاذ‪ :‬محمد حيدر مكي صدق‬

 What are diodes made out of?____________________slide 3

structure allows them to grow

 N-Type Material:  When extra valence electrons

 Space Charge Region: Also called

‫المقرر‪ :‬تماثلية‬ ‫الفرقة‪ :‬الثالثة‬

‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Diode Operayion:‬‬

‫اعداد وتقديم استاذ‪ :‬محمد حيدر مكي صدق‬

The pn junction is considered biased

The Ideal Diode Model

 The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential

The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential and Linear Forward

 The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential and

 Values of ID for the Three Different Diode Circuit Models

 These are the values found in the examples on previous slides

 The operating point or Q point of the diode is the quiescent or no-signal

 The dynamic resistance of the diode is mathematically determined

‫المقرر‪ :‬تماثلية‬ ‫الفرقة‪ :‬الثالثة‬

‫اعداد وتقديم استاذ‪ :‬محمد حيدر مكي صدق‬

Vp(out) = Vp(sec) -1.4 V

‫المقرر‪ :‬تماثلية‬ ‫الفرقة‪ :‬الثالثة‬

‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Power supply Filter :‬‬

‫اعداد وتقديم استاذ‪ :‬محمد حيدر مكي صدق‬

‫المقرر‪ :‬تماثلية‬ ‫الفرقة‪ :‬الثالثة‬

‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Diode Applicaion :‬‬

‫اعداد وتقديم استاذ‪ :‬محمد حيدر مكي صدق‬

Us Mohamed Hyder 100

Us Mohamed Hyder 101

Us Mohamed Hyder 102

Us Mohamed Hyder 104

VC1 - VC2 + Vp = 0,VC2 = Vp + VC1

Us Mohamed Hyder 106

Us Mohamed Hyder 107

Us Mohamed Hyder 108

Us Mohamed Hyder 109

‫المقرر‪ :‬تماثلية‬ ‫الفرقة‪ :‬الثالثة‬

‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Zener Diode :‬‬

‫اعداد وتقديم استاذ‪ :‬محمد حيدر مكي صدق‬

Us Mohamed Hyder 111

Us Mohamed Hyder 112

Us Mohamed Hyder 113

‫المقرر‪ :‬تماثلية‬ ‫الفرقة‪ :‬الثالثة‬

‫عنوان المحاضرة‪Special types of Diode:‬‬

‫اعداد وتقديم استاذ‪ :‬محمد حيدر مكي صدق‬

Us Mohamed Hyder 115