Professional Documents
Culture Documents
تماثلية - 1 (1) 2
تماثلية - 1 (1) 2
Us Mohamed Hyder 3
An atom has three
parts:
Proton = positive
Neutron = no charge
Electron = negative
Us Mohamed Hyder 5
Us Mohamed Hyder 6
Elements are the
building blocks of all
matter.
The periodic table is a
list of all of the
elements that can build
matter. It’s a little like
the alphabet of
chemistry.
The periodic table tells
us several things…
Us Mohamed Hyder 7
Atomic Number:
Number of protons 8
and it is also the
number of Symbol:
Element’s electrons
in an
An
the
atom of anfor
abbreviation
element.
element. O
Elements Name
Oxygen
Atomic Mass/Weight: 16
Number of protons +
neutrons.
Us Mohamed Hyder 8
There are two models of the atoms we will be
using in class.
Bohr Model
Quantum Model
Us Mohamed Hyder 9
The Bohr Model
shows all of the -
particles in the
atom. +
In the center is +
Us Mohamed Hyder 11
Nucleus
1st shell
2nd shell
3rd shell
Us Mohamed Hyder 12
You can’t just shove all of the electrons
into the first orbit of an electron.
Electrons live in something called shells
or energy levels.
Us Mohamed Hyder 13
The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom
are called valence electrons.
Us Mohamed Hyder 14
is the process by which an atom or a molecule
acquires a negative or positive charge by
gaining or losing electrons. Ionization, often,
results from the interaction of an atom or a
molecule with an ionizing particle, including
charged particles with sufficient energies and
energetic photons.
Us Mohamed Hyder 15
In the modern (quantum) model of the atom,
electrons are found in regions of space called
orbitals
Orbitals are clouds of probability where
electrons are most likely to be found
The shape of these clouds is the result of
plotting the solutions to very complicated
mathematical equations
Us Mohamed Hyder 16
How to draw a Lithium atom
First, look at the Periodic Table
Second, determine the number of
protons (Look @ the atomic number)
Then determine the number of
neutrons (Atomic mass – atomic 3
number)
Then determine the number of
electrons (Look @ the atomic
Li
number)
Lithium
7
Us Mohamed Hyder 17
Protons = 3
- 3
+
+
Li
+
- Lithium
- 7
Electrons = 3
Neutrons = 4
2 in the 1st shell, 1 in the 2nd shell
(7-3=4)
Us Mohamed Hyder 18
التخصص :قدرة- القسم :هندسة كهرباء
تحكم
العام الدراسي2020 /2019 :م – الفصل الدراسي األول
Us Mohamed Hyder 21
Semiconductors:
Similar to insulators but narrow band gap
At electrical temperatures some electrons
can be promoted to the conduction band
Us Mohamed Hyder 22
Solid state electronics arises from the unique
properties of silicon and germanium, each of
which has four valence electrons and which
form crystal lattices in which substituted atoms
(dopants) can dramatically change the electrical
properties.
Us Mohamed Hyder 23
In solid state electronics, either pure silicon or
germanium may be used as the intrinsic
semiconductor which forms the starting point
for fabrication. Each has four valence electrons,
but germanium will at a given temperature
have more free electrons and a higher
conductivity. Silicon is by far the more widely
used semiconductor for electronics, partly
because it can be used at much higher
temperatures than germanium.
Us Mohamed Hyder 24
Between nonmetallic elements of similar
electronegativity.
Formed by sharing electron pairs
Stable non-ionizing particles, they are not
conductors at any state
Examples; O2, CO2, C2H6, H2O, SiC
Us Mohamed Hyder 25
Doping:To make the semiconductor conduct
electricity, other atoms called impurities must
be added, “Impurities” are different elements.
This process is called doping.
An impurity, or element like arsenic, has 5
valence electrons.
Adding arsenic (doping) will allow four of the
arsenic valence electrons to bond with the
neighboring silicon atoms.
The one electron left over for each arsenic atom
becomes available to conduct current flow.
Us Mohamed Hyder 26
Us Mohamed Hyder 27
You can also dope a semiconductor material
with an atom such as boron that has only 3
valence electrons.
The 3 electrons in the outer orbit do form
covalent bonds with its neighboring
semiconductor atoms as before. But one
electron is missing from the bond.
This place where a fourth electron should be is
referred to as a hole.
The hole assumes a positive charge so it can
attract electrons from some other source.
Holes become a type of current carrier like the
electron to support current flow.
Us Mohamed Hyder 28
Us Mohamed Hyder 29
The silicon doped with extra electrons is called
an “N type” semiconductor.
“N” is for negative, which is the charge of an
electron.
Silicon doped with material missing electrons
that produce locations called holes is called “P
type” semiconductor.
“P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.
Us Mohamed Hyder 30
The DC voltage source has a positive terminal
that attracts the free electrons in the
semiconductor and pulls them away from their
atoms leaving the atoms charged positively.
Electrons from the negative terminal of the
supply enter the semiconductor material and
are attracted by the positive charge of the
atoms missing one of their electrons.
Current (electrons) flows from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal.
Us Mohamed Hyder 31
Us Mohamed Hyder 32
Electrons from the negative supply terminal
are attracted to the positive holes and fill them.
The positive terminal of the supply pulls the
electrons from the holes leaving the holes to
attract more electrons.
Current (electrons) flows from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal.
Inside the semiconductor current flow is
actually by the movement of the holes from
positive to negative.
Us Mohamed Hyder 33
Us Mohamed Hyder 34
On its own a p-type or n-type semiconductor is
not very useful. However when combined very
useful devices can be made.
The p-n junction can be formed by allowing a
p-type material to diffuse into a n-type region
at high temperatures.
Us Mohamed Hyder 35
Free electrons on the n-side and free holes on
the p-side can initially diffuse across the
junction. Uncovered charges are left in the
neighbourhood of the junction.
This region is depleted of mobile carriers and
is called the DEPLETION REGION (thickness
0.5 – 1.0 µm).
Us Mohamed Hyder 36
The diffusion of electrons and holes stop due to
the barrier p.d (p.d across the junction)
reaching some critical value.
The barrier p.d (or the contact potential)
depends on the type of semiconductor,
temperature and doping densities.
At room temperature, typical values of barrier
p.d. are:
Ge ~ 0.2 – 0.4 V
Si ~ 0.6 – 0.8 V
Us Mohamed Hyder 37
Us Mohamed Hyder 38
التخصص :قدرة- القسم :هندسة كهرباء
تحكم
العام الدراسي2020 /2019 :م – الفصل الدراسي األول
Us Mohamed Hyder 41
Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) Si
+4
Si
+4
Si
+4
are the two most common single
elements that are used to make Si Si
Si
Diodes. +4 +4 +4
Us Mohamed Hyder 42
N-Type Material: When extra valence electrons
are introduced into a
material such as silicon an n-
type material is produced.
The extra valence electrons
are introduced by putting
impurities or dopants into
the silicon.
Us Mohamed Hyder 43
P-Type Material:
P-type material is produced
when the dopant that is
introduced is from Group III.
Group III elements have only 3
valence electrons and therefore
there is an electron missing.
This creates a hole (h+), or a
positive charge that can move
around in the material.
Us Mohamed Hyder 44
Steady State1
Us Mohamed Hyder 45
Space Charge Region: Also called
the depletion region. This region
includes the net positively and
negatively charged regions. The
space charge region does not have
any free carriers. The width of the
space charge region is denoted by W
in pn junction formula’s.
Metallurgical Junction: The
interface where the p- and n-type
materials meet.
Na & Nd: Represent the amount of When no external source is
negative and positive doping in connected to the pn junction,
number of carriers per centimeter diffusion and drift balance
cubed. Usually in the range of 1015 each other out for both the
to 1020. holes and electrons
Us Mohamed Hyder 46
التخصص :قدرة- القسم :هندسة كهرباء
تحكم
العام الدراسي2020 /2019 :م – الفصل الدراسي األول
Us Mohamed Hyder 48
Forward Bias:
Vapplied > 0
In forward bias the depletion region shrinks slightly in width. With this shrinking
the energy required for charge carriers to cross the depletion region decreases
exponentially. Therefore, as the applied voltage increases, current starts to flow
across the junction. The barrier potential of the diode is the voltage at which
appreciable current starts to flow through the diode. The barrier potential varies
for different materials.
Reverse Bias:
Vapplied < 0
Under reverse bias the depletion region widens. This causes the electric field
produced by the ions to cancel out the applied reverse bias voltage. A small
leakage current, Is (saturation current) flows under reverse bias conditions. This
saturation current is made up of electron-hole pairs being produced in the
depletion region. Saturation current is sometimes referred to as scale current
because of it’s relationship to junction temperature.
Us Mohamed Hyder 49
VD = Bias Voltage
ID = Current through Diode. ID
is Negative for Reverse Bias
and Positive for Forward Bias
IS = Saturation Current
VBR = Breakdown Voltage
V = Barrier Potential Voltage
Us Mohamed Hyder 50
The Ideal Diode Model
The diode is designed to allow current to flow
in only one direction. The perfect diode would
be a perfect conductor in one direction
(forward bias) and a perfect insulator in the
other direction (reverse bias). In many
situations, using the ideal diode approximation
is acceptable.
Us Mohamed Hyder 51
Example: Assume the diode in the circuit below is ideal. Determine
the value of ID if a) VA = 5 volts (forward bias) and b) VA = -5 volts
(reverse bias)
a) With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is acting like a perfect
conductor so:
ID = VA/RS = 5 V / 50 = 100 mA
b) With VA < 0 the diode is in reverse bias and is acting like a perfect
insulator, therefore no current can flow and ID = 0.
Us Mohamed Hyder 52
The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential
This model is more accurate than the simple ideal diode model
because it includes the approximate barrier potential voltage.
Remember the barrier potential voltage is the voltage at which
appreciable current starts to flow.
Example: To be more accurate than just using the ideal diode
model include the barrier potential. Assume V = 0.3 volts (typical
for a germanium diode) Determine the value of ID if VA = 5 volts
(forward bias).
Us Mohamed Hyder 53
With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is
acting like a perfect conductor so write a KVL
equation to find ID:
0 = VA – IDRS - V
ID =( VA - V )/ RS = 4.7 V/ 50 = 94 mA
Us Mohamed Hyder 54
The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential and Linear Forward
Resistance
This model is the most accurate of the three. It includes a
linear forward resistance that is calculated from the slope of
the linear portion of the transconductance curve. However,
this is usually not necessary since the RF (forward resistance)
value is pretty constant. For low-power germanium and
silicon diodes the RF value is usually in the 2 to 5 ohms range,
while higher power diodes have a RF value closer to 1 ohm.
Us Mohamed Hyder 55
The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential and
Linear Forward Resistance
Example: Assume the diode is a low-power
diode with a forward resistance value of 5
ohms. The barrier potential voltage is still: V
= 0.3 volts (typical for a germanium diode)
Determine the value of ID if VA = 5 volts.
Us Mohamed Hyder 56
Once again, write a KVL equation for the
circuit:
0 = VA – IDRS - V - IDRF
ID = ( VA - V )/ (RS + RF ) =
(5 – 0.3)/(50 + 5) = 85.5 mA
Us Mohamed Hyder 57
Values of ID for the Three Different Diode Circuit Models
Us Mohamed Hyder 58
The operating point or Q point of the diode is the quiescent or no-signal
condition. The Q point is obtained graphically and is really only needed
when the applied voltage is very close to the diode’s barrier potential
voltage. The example 3 below that is continued on the next slide, shows
how the Q point is determined using the transconductance curve and the
load line.
First the load line is found by substituting in different values of V into
the equation for ID using the ideal diode with barrier potential model for
the diode. With RS at 1000 ohms the value of RF wouldn’t have much
impact on the results.
ID = (VA – V )/ RS
Us Mohamed Hyder 59
Using V values of 0 volts and 1.4 volts we obtain ID values of 6
mA and 4.6 mA respectively. Next we will draw the line
connecting these two points on the graph with the
transconductance curve. This line is the load line.
Us Mohamed Hyder 60
Us Mohamed Hyder 61
The dynamic resistance of the diode is mathematically determined
as the inverse of the slope of the transconductance curve.
Therefore, the equation for dynamic resistance is: rF = VT / ID
The dynamic resistance is used in determining the voltage drop
across the diode in the situation where a voltage source is
supplying a sinusoidal signal with a dc offset.
The ac component of the diode voltage is found using the
following equation: vF = vac rF /(rF + RS)
The voltage drop through the diode is a combination of the ac and
dc components and is equal to: VD = V + vF
Us Mohamed Hyder 62
Example: Use the same circuit used for the Q point example but
change the voltage source so it is an ac source with a dc offset.
The source voltage is now, vin = 6 + sin(wt) Volts. It is a silicon
diode so the barrier potential voltage is still 0.7 volts
Us Mohamed Hyder 63
The DC component of the circuit is the same as the previous example
and therefore ID = 6V – 0.7 V = 5.2 mA
1000
rF = VT / ID = 1 * 26 mV = 4.9
5.3 mA
= 1 is a good approximation if the dc current is greater than 1 mA
as it is in this example.
vF = vac rF / ( rF + RS) = sin(wt) V 4.9 / (4.9 + 1000 ) =
4.88 sin(wt) mV
Therefore, VD = 700 + 4.9 sin (wt) mV (the voltage drop across
the diode)
Us Mohamed Hyder 64
The complete model of a diode is the most
accurate approximation and includes the
barrier potential, the small forward dynamic
resistance (r’d), and the large internal reverse
resistance (r’R). The reverse resistance is taken
into account because it provides a path for the
reverse current, which is included in this diode
model.
Us Mohamed Hyder 65
Us Mohamed Hyder 66
Us Mohamed Hyder 67
Us Mohamed Hyder 68
Us Mohamed Hyder 69
Us Mohamed Hyder 70
Us Mohamed Hyder 71
التخصص :قدرة- القسم :هندسة كهرباء
تحكم
العام الدراسي2020 /2019 :م – الفصل الدراسي األول
Us Mohamed Hyder 73
Transformer
Rectifier
Filter
Regulator
Us Mohamed Hyder 74
Us Mohamed Hyder 75
The average value of the half-wave rectified
output voltage is the value you would measure
on a dc voltmeter.
Us Mohamed Hyder 76
When the practical diode model is used with
the barrier potential of 0.7 V taken into account.
Vp(out) = Vp(in) - 0.7 V
Us Mohamed Hyder 77
Us Mohamed Hyder 78
The amount that the voltage is stepped down is
determined by the turns ratio of the
transformer. the number of turns in the
secondary (Nsec) divided by the number of
turns in the primary (Npri).”
The secondary voltage of a transformer equals
the turns ratio, n, times the primary voltage.
Vsec = nVpri
Us Mohamed Hyder 79
Us Mohamed Hyder 80
Us Mohamed Hyder 81
Us Mohamed Hyder 82
Vout = (V sec/2)-0.7 V
Us Mohamed Hyder 83
Vp(sec) = 2Vp(out) + 1.4 V
Us Mohamed Hyder 84
Us Mohamed Hyder 85
Us Mohamed Hyder 86
Vp(out) = Vp(sec)
Us Mohamed Hyder 87
Us Mohamed Hyder 88
التخصص :قدرة- القسم :هندسة كهرباء
تحكم
العام الدراسي2020 /2019 :م – الفصل الدراسي األول
Us Mohamed Hyder 94
Us Mohamed Hyder 95
Us Mohamed Hyder 96
التخصص :قدرة- القسم :هندسة كهرباء
تحكم
العام الدراسي2020 /2019 :م – الفصل الدراسي األول