Module 3

FUNDAMENTALS OF
ELECTROTECHNICS

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 M3.1 – Theory of Electronics
GOALS
Understand the concept of matter and its structure:
- Atoms, molecules, Ions.
Understand the molecular structure of conductors,
semiconductors and insulators.

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Scientific Notation

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 Matter
Matter: everything that has mass and occupies space (volume).
The material can be in the solid, liquid or gaseous state and
consists of mixtures or compounds that are organized into
molecules.

Vaporization Deposition

Condensation Sublimation
Freezing

Fusion

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 Matter
Element - A fundamental part of matter that can not be
separated by chemical or physical process.
Compound - Combination of two or more elements (Example:
salt is composed of sodium/chlorine - sodium chloride).
- The compound can only be separated by chemical process.
Mixture - Combination of elements and/or compounds and may
be separated by mechanical processes.

Element Molecule Compound Mixture

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 Matter
Molecule: smallest part of matter in which a compound can be
divided by a physical process.
- Maintains all characteristics of the compound and is formed
by chemical elements:

Element Compound

Crystalline
Atomic Molecular Crystalline Molecular

Helium Iron Methane

Oxygen Salt

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 Chemical element
Chemical element can not be decomposed into simpler
substances by chemical methods → indivisible element.
All chemical elements are organized in a table (periodic table)
according to two criteria:
- In ascending order of atomic numbers.
- Those having similar properties in the same vertical column.
Atomic number (Z): Set of atoms that have the same number of
protons, that is, the same number of electrons.
Atomic mass (A) represents the sum of protons and neutrons.

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Periodic Table

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 Atom
The fundamental particle of an element. It presents the
characteristics of the element and consists of subatomic
particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.

Protons and neutrons are clustered in

the nucleus and electrons gravitate
around the nucleus.
- Protons → positive charge.
- Electrons → negative charge.
- Neutrals → no load.
Mass of the atom: nucleus. Proton
Mass of a proton: 1837 greater than Electron
that of the electron. Neutron
Neutral atom: Protons = Electrons.
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 Energy Levels
The total energy of the orbits of the electrons around the
nucleus is the sum of the potential energy with the kinetic
energy.
- Electron receives energy → the radius of its orbit increases.
- Electron releases energy → the radius of its orbit decreases.
Variation of energy in the electron:
- Collision with a photon → receives energy.
- Emission of a photon → releases energy.

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 Orbits
The photons present discrete packets of energy depending of its
color.
Energy transitions occur between pre-defined energy
levels: Orbits.

The electrons rotate around the nucleus and are distributed over
several electronic orbits in a total of seven layers:
- K, L, M, N, O, P, Q.
- Fill the layers: 2.n2.
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 Layer distribution

- In the layers the electrons group in pairs in

sublevels.
- Principle of distribution of Pauling:
2 x (2 x l + 1)

l = 0  s = 2 x (2 x 0 + 1) = 2 ; l = 1  p = 2 x (2 x 1 + 1) = 6
l = 2  d = 2 x (2 x 2 + 1) = 10 ; l = 3  f = 2 x (2 x 3 + 1) = 14

Example: Manganese (Mn) Z=25

– Z=25  K=2, L=8, M=13, N=2
– 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d5

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 Example of elements and molecules

Oxygen
Water

Hydrogen

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 Valence electron
Valence electrons: electrons of the layer farthest from the
nucleus (Valence shell):

- They define the atom's ability to lose or

gain electrons.
- Atoms up to 3 valence electrons tend
to lose them.
- Atoms with more than 5 valence
electrons tend to receive electrons.

An electrically neutral atom, when it receives or loses electrons

becomes an ion.

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 Ions
An electrically neutral atom can receive or lose electrons:
- Receive one or more electrons: Negative ion (anion).
- Lose one or more electrons: Positive ion (Cation).

Ionic substances are constituted by positive and negative

ions, and their set is electrically neutral.

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 Conductor
A material is good conductor when it allows the passage of
electric charges with facility.
The valence electrons are weakly connected to the atom, and
can be easily displaced from the atom.
Atoms with 1 to 3 valence electrons are good conductors.

Copper has one

valence electron: it
easily gives up this
electron.

Other materials with a copper-like constitution (a single electron

in the valence shell): gold and silver, are also excellent
conductors of electricity.

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 Insulator and semiconductor
A material is a good insulator when the passage of electrical
charges is difficult: valence electrons are strongly connected to
the atom, and it is not easy to displace them.
Atoms with 5 to 8 valence electrons are good insulators. Glass,
porcelain, mica, rubber are good insulators.
A semiconductor has a conductivity level between the ends of an
insulator and a conductor.
- Under certain circumstances behaves as a conductor or as an
isolator.
Semiconductors have 4 valence electrons. Silicon and Germanium
are semiconductors.
- Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor.

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 Atomic structure
Conductor - copper Insulator - Argon

Semiconductor - Silicon

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 Energy Band

Insulator: It is necessary to apply a lot of energy to the electrons

to move from the valence band to the conduction band because
the band is too wide.
Conductor: Easy passage of electrons from the valence band to
the conduction band because there is no bandwidth prohibited.
Semiconductor: Intermediate situation between insulation
materials and conductors.
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Questions ?
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