Lecture 3

CE301 ELECTRONIC
DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

ENERGY BANDS, EFFECTIVE MASS

AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Michael Mensah
msela.mensah@gmail.com
Department of Engineering
 Course Content
 The course examine electronics components (resistors,
capacitors, inductors, diodes), principles of semiconductor
electronic devices: operational amplifiers, diodes and
bipolar junction transistors; amplifier specification and
external characteristics; analysis of electronic circuits using
graphical methods and electronic device models; analysis
and design of electronic application circuits such as
rectifiers, clippers, inverting amplifiers and voltage
followers; introduction to digital simulators.
 Chapter Outcome
• To understand the semiconductor
materials that are suitable for electronic
devices
• To study the properties of materials for
electronic devices
• To understand the biasing of diode
• Able to design Diode circuit
• Able to apply some types of diodes
Atomic Structure
Atomic Structure
 Atoms go around the nucleolus in their orbits –
discrete distances
 Each orbit has some energy level
 The closer the orbit to the nucleus the less
energy it has
 Group of orbits called shell
 Electrons on the same shell have similar energy
level
 Valence shell is the outmost shell
 Valence shell has valence electrons ready to
be freed
 Number of electrons (Ne) on each shell (n)
Ne = 2n2
– First shell has 2 electrons
– Second shell has 8 electrons (not shown here)
Atomic Structure
Atomic Structure
 Atomic structure
Valence shell (4 valence electrons) Valence shell (4 valence electrons)

Valence
shells electron
Valence
+ electron
+

Nucleus

orbiting
electrons orbiting
electrons
Silicon
Germanium

32 orbiting electrons 14 orbiting electrons

(tetravalent) (Tetravalent)
 Atomic structure
Valence shell (3 valence electrons)
Valence shell (5 valence electrons)
Valence
electron Valence
shells
shells electron

+
+

Nucleus orbiting
electrons Nucleus orbiting
electrons
Gallium
Arsenic

31 orbiting electrons 33 orbiting electrons

(trivalent) (pentavalent)
 ELECTRONS AND SHELLS
 Energy Levels: Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at
certain distances from the nucleus. Electrons near the
nucleus have less energy than those in more distant orbits.

 Only discrete (separate and distinct) values of electron

energies exist within atomic structures. Therefore, electrons
must orbit only at discrete distances from the nucleus.

 Each discrete distance (orbit) from the nucleus corresponds

to a certain energy level. In an atom, the orbits are grouped
into energy levels known as shells. A given atom has a fixed
number of shells. Each shell has a fixed maximum number of
electrons. The shells (energy levels) are designated 1, 2, 3,
and so on, with 1 being closest to the nucleus.
 ELECTRONS AND SHELLS
 The Bohr model of the silicon atom is shown in Figure 1–4.
Notice that there are 14 electrons and 14 each of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus.

Figure 1–5 A section of the periodic table of some elements

 VALENCE ELECTRONS
 Electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus have
higher energy and are less tightly bound to the atom than
those closer to the nucleus. This is because the force of
attraction between the positively charged nucleus and the
negatively charged electron decreases with increasing
distance from the nucleus.

 Electrons with the highest energy exist in the outermost shell

of an atom and are relatively loosely bound to the atom. This
outermost shell is known as the valence shell and electrons
in this shell are called valence electrons.

 These valence electrons contribute to chemical reactions and

bonding within the structure of a material and determine its
electrical properties.
 VALENCE ELECTRONS & IONIZATION
 When a valence electron gains sufficient energy from an
external source, it can break free from its atom. This is the
basis for conduction in materials.

 When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from

light, for example, the energies of the electrons are raised.
The valence electrons possess more energy and are more
loosely bound to the atom than inner electrons, so they can
easily jump to higher energy shells when external energy is
absorbed by the atom.

 If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy,

called ionization energy, it can actually escape from the
outer shell and the atom’s influence.
 VALENCE ELECTRONS & IONIZATION
 The departure of a valence electron leaves a previously
neutral atom with an excess of positive charge (more protons
than electrons). The process of losing a valence electron is
known as ionization, and the resulting positively charged
atom is called a positive ion.

 For example, the chemical symbol for hydrogen is H. When a

neutral hydrogen atom loses its valence electron and
becomes a positive ion, it is designated H+

 The escaped valence electron is called a free electron. The

reverse process can occur in certain atoms when a free
electron collides with the atom and is captured, releasing
energy. The atom that has acquired the extra electron is
called a negative ion.
 VALENCE ELECTRONS & IONIZATION
 The ionization process is not restricted to single atoms. In
many chemical reactions, a group of atoms that are bonded
together can lose or acquire one or more electrons.

 For some non metallic materials such as chlorine, a free

electron can be captured by the neutral atom, forming a
negative ion. In the case of chlorine, the ion is more stable
than the neutral atom because it has a filled outer shell. The
chlorine ion is designated as Cl–
 MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONICS
 In terms of their electrical properties, materials can be
classified into three groups: conductors, semiconductors, and
insulators. When atoms combine to form a solid, crystalline
material, they arrange themselves in a symmetrical pattern.

 The atoms within the crystal structure are held together by

covalent bonds, which are created by the interaction of the
valence electrons of the atoms.

 All materials are made up of atoms. These atoms contribute

to the electrical properties of a material, including its ability to
conduct electrical current.

 For purposes of discussing electrical properties, an atom can

be represented by the valence shell and a core that consists
of all the inner shells and the nucleus.
Elements
 Basic categories Free
– Conductors electrons

 Examples: Copper, silver

 One valence electron , the e can
easily be freed Always free
– Insulators electrons

 Valence electrons are tightly

bounded to the atom
– Semiconductors
 Silicon, germanium (single
element)
 Gallium arsenide, indium Conduction band is
phosphide (compounds) where the electron
 They can act as conductors or leaves the valence shell
insulators and becomes free
Valence band is where
the outmost shell is
 MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONICS
 INSULATORS: An insulator is a material that does not
conduct electrical current under normal conditions. Most
good insulators are compounds rather than single-element
materials and have very high resistivities.

 Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore,

there are very few free electrons in an insulator. Examples of
insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and quartz.

 CONDUCTORS: A conductor is a material that easily

conducts electrical current. Most metals are good conductors.
The best conductors are single-element materials, such as
 copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and aluminum (Al), which
are characterized by atoms with only one valence electron
very loosely bound to the atom. These loosely bound valence
electrons become free electrons. Therefore, in a conductive
material the free electrons are valence electrons.
 MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONICS
 SEMICONDUCTORS: A semiconductor is a material that is
between conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct
electrical current. A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state
is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator. Single-
element semiconductors are antimony (Sb), arsenic(As),
astatine (At), boron (B), polonium (Po), tellurium (Te), silicon
(Si), and germanium (Ge). Compound semiconductors such
as gallium arsenide, indium phosphide, gallium nitride, silicon
carbide, and silicon germanium are also commonly used.

 The single-element semiconductors are characterized by

atoms with four valence electrons. Silicon is the most
commonly used semiconductor.
Group → 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

↓ Period

1 2
1
H He

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

55 56 * 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

87 88 ** 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
* Lanthanides
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

** Actinides
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
 Band Gap
 The difference in energy between each of these smaller
levels is so tiny that it is more reasonable to consider
each of these sets of smaller energy-levels as being
continuous bands of energy, rather than considering the
enormous number of discrete individual levels.

 Each allowed band is seperated from another one by a

forbidden band.
band

 Electrons can be found in allowed bands but they can

not be found in forbidden bands.
bands
 .:: Semiconductor, Insulators, Conductors ::.

Full band Empty band

All energy levels are All energy levels are

occupied by electrons empty
( no electrons)

Both full and empty bands do not partake in electrical conduction.

 .:: Semiconductor energy bands at low temperature ::.
 At low temperatures the valance
band is full, and the conduction
band is empty.
Empty
conduction  Recall that a full band can not
band
conduct, and neither can an empty
Electron energy

band.
Forbidden
energy gap [Eg]  At low temperatures, s/c’s do not
conduct, they behave like
insulators.
Full
valance
band  The thermal energy of the electrons
sitting at the top of the full band is
much lower than that of the Eg at
low temperatures.
temperatures
Conduction Electron :

 Assume some kind of energy is provided

to the electron (valence electron) sitting
at the top of the valance band.
Empty
 This electron gains energy from the conduction
applied field and it would like to move band
into higher energy states.
Forbidden
 This electron contributes to the energy gap [Eg]
conductivity and this electron is called
as a conduction electron.
electron
Full
 At 00K, electron sits at the lowest valance
energy levels. The valance band is the band
highest filled band at zero kelvin.
 Semiconductor energy bands at room temperature

 When enough energy is supplied to

the e- sitting at the top of the
valance band, e- can make a Empty
conduction
transition to the bottom of the
band
conduction band.
 When electron makes such a
transition it leaves behind a missing
electron state.
Forbidden
 This missing electron state is called energy gap [Eg]
as a hole.
 Hole behaves as a positive charge
carrier.
energy e+- e+- e+- e+-
 Magnitude of its charge is the same
Full
with that of the electron but with an valance
opposite sign. band
Conclusions ::.

 Holes contribute to current in valance band (VB) as e-’s

are able to create current in conduction band (CB).

 Hole is not a free particle. It can only exist within the

crystal. A hole is simply a vacant electron state.

 A transition results in an equal number of e- in CB and

holes in VB. This is an important property of intrinsic, or
undoped s/c’s. For extrinsic, or doped, semiconductors
this is no longer true.
 Bipolar (two carrier) conduction

 After transition,
transition the
valance band is no longer
full, it is partly filled and
empty may conduct electric
Electron energy

current.
Valance Band
(partly filled
occupied  The conductivity is due to
band)
both electrons and holes,
and this device is called a
After transition bipolar conductor or
bipolar device.
Insulators :

 The magnitude of the band gap

determines the differences between
insulators, s/c‘s and metals.

 The excitation mechanism of thermal

is not a useful way to promote an CB (completely empty)
electron to CB even the melting
temperature is reached in an
insulator. Eg~several electron volts

 Even very high electric fields is also

VB (completely full)
unable to promote electrons across
the band gap in an insulator.

Wide band gaps between VB and CB

 Metals :

 These two bands

looks like as if partly
filled bands and it is
CB known that partly
CB
filled bands conducts
VB well.
VB  This is the reason
why metals have high
conductivity.
Touching VB and CB Overlapping VB and CB

 No gap between valance band and conduction band

 Summary
 The free electron and hole concentrations in bulk semiconductors can be
modified by the processes of generation and recombination, and also by the
transport of electrons and holes through drift and diffusion.

 Generation: e.g., absorption of a photon generates a free electron and a free

hole (an electron‐hole pair).

 Recombination: can be radiative, in which case a photon is emitted as the

electron returns to the valence band, or non‐radiative, in which case the
energy associated with the e‐h pair is converted to heat, or transferred to
another charge carrier (Auger recombination) –non‐radiative corresponds to
no photon.

 Transport is the movement of charge carriers under forces based either on an

electric field, or on a concentration gradient:

 Drift refers to the motion of charge carriers under the force of an electric field.

 Diffusion refers to motion of electron and holes due to the presence of a

concentration gradient.
 Summary (Generation and recombination)
 Charge carriers move between valence and conduction bands under thermal
influence (thermal excitation within the Boltzmann tail of the Fermi‐Dirac
distribution). In the dark and at equilibrium, the concentration of electrons and
holes are unaffected by these processes.

 Generation, under influence of light

absorption for example, promotes
electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band, resulting in a new free
electron in the CB, and a new hole in
the VB.

 Recombination is essentially the reverse

process, in which an electron returns to
the valence band, giving up it electronic
potential energy to a photon, or a third
carrier, or to phonons.
 MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONICS
 BAND GAP: Recall that the valence shell of an atom
represents a band of energy levels and that the valence
electrons are confined to that band.

 When an electron acquires enough additional energy, it can

leave the valence shell, become a free electron, and exist in
what is known as the conduction band.

 The difference in energy between the valence band and the

conduction band is called an energy gap or band gap. This
is the amount of energy that a valence electron must have in
order to jump from the valence band to the conduction band.
Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to move
throughout the material and is not tied to any given atom.
 CURRENT IN SEMICONDUCTORS
 The way a material conducts electrical current is important in
understanding how electronic devices operate. You can’t
really understand the operation of a device such as a diode
or transistor without knowing something about current in
semiconductors.

 When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is

left in the valence band within the crystal. This vacancy is
called a hole. For every electron raised to the conduction
band by external energy, there is one hole left in the valence
band, creating what is called an electron-hole pair
Semiconductors
 Remember the further away from the
nucleus the less energy is required to
free the electrons
 Germanium is less stable
– Less energy is required to make the
electron to jump to the conduction
band

 When atoms combine to form a solid,

they arrange themselves in a
symmetrical patterns
 Semiconductor atoms (silicon) form
crystals
 Intrinsic crystals have no impurities
 MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONICS
SILICON AND GERMANIUM
The atomic structures of silicon and germanium are compared in
Figure 1–9. Silicon is used in diodes, transistors, integrated circuits,
and other semiconductor devices. Notice that both silicon and
germanium have the characteristic four valence electrons.
 The valence electrons in
germanium are in the fourth shell
while those in silicon are in the third
shell, closer to the nucleus. This
means that the germanium valence
electrons are at higher energy
levels than those in silicon and,
therefore, require a smaller amount
of additional energy to escape from
the atom.
 This property makes germanium more unstable at high temperatures
and results in excessive reverse current. This is why silicon is a
more widely used semiconductive material.
Conduction Electrons and Holes
 Electrons exist only within
prescribed energy bands
 These bands are separated by
energy gaps
 When an electron jumps to the
conduction band it causes a hole
 When electron falls back to its initial
valence recombination occurs
 Consequently there are two
different types of currents
– Hole current (electrons are the
minority carriers)
– Electron current (holes are the
minority carriers)

Remember: We are interested in electrical current!

Doping
 By adding impurities to the intrinsic
semiconductor we can change the
conductivity of the material – this is called
doping
– N-type doping
– P-type doping
 N-type: pentavalent (atom with 5 valence
electrons) impurity atoms are added
– [Sb(Antimony) + Si]
– Negative charges (electrons) are generated
  N-type has lots of free electrons
 P-type: trivalent (atom with 3 valence
electrons) impurity atoms are added
– [B(Boron) + Si]
– Positive charges (holes) are generated
– P-type has lots of holes
 N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
 Semiconductive materials do not conduct current well and
are of limited value in their intrinsic state. This is because of
the limited number of free electrons in the conduction band
and holes in the valence band. Intrinsic silicon (or
germanium) must be modified by increasing the number of
free electrons or holes to increase its conductivity and make
it useful in electronic devices.

 This is done by adding impurities to the intrinsic material.

 Two types of extrinsic(impure) semiconductive materials, n-

type and p-type, are the key building blocks for most types of
electronic devices
N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

 Since semiconductors are generally poor

conductors, their conductivity can be
drastically increased by the controlled
addition of impurities to the intrinsic(pure)
semiconductive material.

 This process, called doping, increases the

number of current carriers(electrons or
holes). The two categories of impurities are
n-type and p-type.
 What Are Diodes Made Out Of?
• Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the two most
common single elements that are used to make
Diodes. A compound that is commonly used is Si Si Si
+4 +4 +4
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), especially in the case of
LEDs because of it’s large bandgap.
Si Si Si
+4 +4
• Silicon and Germanium are both group 4 elements, +4

meaning they have 4 valence electrons. Their

Si Si Si
structure allows them to grow in a shape called the +4 +4 +4
diamond lattice.
• Gallium is a group 3 element while Arsenide is a
The diagram above shows the
group 5 element. When put together as a 2D structure of the Si crystal.
compound, GaAs creates a zincblend lattice The light green lines
structure. represent the electronic
bonds made when the
• In both the diamond lattice and zincblend lattice, valence electrons are shared.
Each Si atom shares one
each atom shares its valence electrons with its four electron with each of its four
closest neighbors. This sharing of electrons is what closest neighbors so that its
ultimately allows diodes to be build. When dopants valence band will have a full 8
from groups 3 or 5 (in most cases) are added to Si, electrons.

Ge or GaAs it changes the properties of the material

so we are able to make the P- and N-type materials Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE
that become the diode. Spring 2002
 N-Type Material

N-Type Material: When extra valence electrons are

introduced into a material such as
silicon an n-type material is
+4 +4 +4 produced. The extra valence
electrons are introduced by putting
+4 +5 +4 impurities or dopants into the silicon.
The dopants used to create an n-
type material are Group V elements.
+4 +4 +4 The most commonly used dopants
from Group V are arsenic, antimony
Figure 1–10 The extra and phosphorus. Because the
electron that will be present pentavalent atom gives up an
when a Group V dopant is
introduced to a material electron, it is often called a donor
such as silicon. This extra atom
electron is very mobile.
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE
Spring 2002
 N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
Majority and Minority Carriers

Since most of the current carriers are electrons, silicon (or

germanium) doped with pentavalent atoms is an n-type
semiconductor (the n stands for the negative charge on an
electron). The electrons are called the majority carriers in n-
type material.

Although the majority of current carriers in n-type material are

electrons, there are also a few holes that are created when
electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. These holes are
not produced by the addition of the pentavalent impurity atoms.
Holes in an n-type material are called minority carriers.
 P-Type Material

P-Type Material: P-type material is produced when the

dopant that is introduced is from
Group III. Group III elements have
only 3 valence electrons and
+4 +4 +4
therefore there is an electron
missing. This creates a hole (h+), or
+4 +3 +4 a positive charge that can move
around in the material. Commonly
used Group III dopants are
+4 +4 +4
aluminum, boron, and gallium.

Figure 1–11 The hole that will be present

when a Group III dopant is introduced to a
material such as silicon. This hole is quite
mobile in the same way the extra electron
is mobile in a n-type material.
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE
Spring 2002
 N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
Majority and Minority Carriers

Since most of the current carriers are holes, silicon (or

germanium) doped with trivalent atoms is called a p-type
semiconductor. The holes are the majority carriers in p-type
material.

Although the majority of current carriers in p-type material are

holes, there are also a few conduction-band electrons that are
created when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. These
conduction-band electrons are not produced by the addition of
the trivalent impurity atoms.

Conduction-band electrons in p-type material are the minority

carriers.
N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

Section Checkup/ Class Exercise

 THE PN JUNCTION
 If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that part is n-type and
the other part is p-type, a pn junction forms at the boundary
between the two regions and a diode is created,

 As indicated in Figure 1–19(a).

The p region has many
holes(majority carriers) from the
impurity atoms and only a few
thermally generated free
electrons(minority carriers). The n
region has many free
electrons(majority carriers) from
the impurity atoms and only a few
thermally generated holes(minority
carriers).
DEPLETION REGION
 DEPLETION REGION
 The free electrons in the n region are randomly drifting in all
directions. At the instant of the pn junction formation, the free
electrons near the junction in the n region begin to diffuse
across the junction into the p region where they combine with
holes near the junction, as shown in Figure 1–19(b).

 Before the pn junction is

formed, recall that there are
as many electrons as protons
in the n-type material, making
the material neutral in terms
of net charge. The same is
true for the p-type material.
 DEPLETION REGION
 When the pn junction is formed, the n region loses free
electrons as they diffuse across the junction. This creates a
layer of positive charges(pentavalent ions) near the junction.

 As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses

holes as the electrons and holes combine. This creates a layer
of negative charges(trivalent ions) near the junction.

 These two layers of positive and negative charges form the

depletion region.

 The term depletion refers to the fact that the region near the pn
junction is depleted of charge carriers (electrons and holes)
due to diffusion across the junction.

 Keep in mind that the depletion region is formed very quickly

and is very thin compared to the n region and p region.
 DEPLETION REGION/BARRIER POTENTIAL
 After the initial surge of free electrons across the pn junction,
the depletion region has expanded to a point where equilibrium
is established and there is no further diffusion of electrons
across the junction.

 Any time there is a positive charge and a negative charge near

each other, there is a force acting on the charges as described
by Coulomb’s law.

 In the depletion region there are many positive charges and

many negative charges on opposite sides of the pn
 junction. The forces between the opposite charges form an
electric field, as illustrated in Figure 1–19(b) by the blue arrows
between the positive charges and the negative charges.
 DEPLETION REGION/BARRIER POTENTIAL
 This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n
region, and energy must be expended to move an electron
through the electric field. That is, external energy must be
applied to get the electrons to move across the barrier of the
electric field in the depletion region.
 The potential difference of the electric field across the
depletion region is the amount of voltage required to move
electrons through the electric field. This potential difference is
called the barrier potential and is expressed in volts.
 The barrier potential of a pn junction depends on several
factors, including the type of semiconductive material, the
amount of doping, and the temperature. The typical barrier
potential is approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3V for
germanium at 25oC. Because germanium devices are not
widely used, silicon will be used throughout the rest of the
lectures.
 DIODE OPERATION
 A diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device formed by two
doped regions of silicon separated by a pn junction. In this
chapter, the most common category of diode, known as the
general-purpose diode, is covered.

 Other names, such as rectifier diode or signal diode, depend

on the particular type of application for which the diode was
designed. You will learn how to use a voltage to cause the
diode to conduct current in one direction and block it in the
other direction.

 As mentioned, a diode is made from a small piece of

semiconductor material, usually silicon, in which half is doped
as a p region and half is doped as an n region with a pn
 junction and depletion region in between.
 DIODE OPERATION
 The p region is called the anode and is connected to a
conductive terminal. The n region is called the cathode and is
connected to a second conductive terminal. The basic diode
structure and schematic symbol are shown in Figure 2–1.
 DIODE OPERATION
FORWARD BIAS
To bias a diode, you apply a dc voltage across it. Forward bias
is the condition that allows current through the pn junction. Figure
2–3 shows a dc voltage source connected by conductive material
(contacts and wire) across a diode in the direction to produce
forward bias.

 This external bias voltage is

designated as VBIAS. The
resistor limits the forward
current to a value that will not
damage the diode. Notice that
the negative side of VBIAS is
connected to the n region of
the diode and the positive side
is connected to the p region.
 DIODE OPERATION
FORWARD BIAS
This is one requirement for forward bias. A second requirement
is that the bias voltage, VBIAS, must be greater than the barrier
potential.
A fundamental picture of what happens when a diode is forward-
biased is shown in Figure 2–4. Because like charges repel, the
negative side of the bias-voltage source “pushes” the free
electrons, which are the majority carriers in the n region, toward
the pn junction. This flow of free electrons is called electron
current.
 DIODE OPERATION
FORWARD BIAS
The negative side of the source also provides a continuous flow
of electrons through the external connection (conductor) and into
the n region as shown.

The bias-voltage source imparts sufficient energy to the free

electrons for them to overcome the barrier potential of the
depletion region and move on through into the p region.
Once in the p region, these conduction electrons have lost
enough energy to immediately combine with holes in the valence
band.

Now, the electrons are in the valence band in the p region,

simply because they have lost too much energy overcoming the
barrier potential to remain in the conduction band.
 DIODE OPERATION
FORWARD BIAS
Since unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage
source attracts the valence electrons toward the left end of the p
region. The holes in the p region provide the medium or
“pathway” for these valence electrons to move through the p
region. The valence electrons move from one hole to the next
toward the left.

The holes, which are the majority carriers in the p region,

effectively (not actually) move to the right toward the junction, as
you can see in Figure 2–4. This effective flow of holes is
the hole current.

You can also view the hole current as being created by the flow
of valence electrons through the p region, with the holes
providing the only means for these electrons to flow.
 DIODE OPERATION
FORWARD BIAS
As the electrons flow out of the p region through the external
connection (conductor) and to the positive side of the bias-
voltage source, they leave holes behind in the p region; at the
same time, these electrons become conduction electrons in the
metal conductor.

Recall that the conduction band in a conductor overlaps the

valence band so that it takes much less energy for an electron to
be a free electron in a conductor than in a semiconductor and
that metallic conductors do not have holes in their structure.

There is a continuous availability of holes effectively moving

toward the pn junction to combine with the continuous stream of
electrons as they come across the junction into the p region
 DIODE OPERATION
FORWARD BIAS

The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion Region

As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of
positive ions is reduced. As more holes effectively flow into the
depletion region on the other side of the pn junction, the number
of negative ions is reduced. This reduction in positive and
negative ions during forward bias causes the depletion region to
narrow, as indicated in Figure 2–5
 DIODE OPERATION
FORWARD BIAS

The Effect of the Barrier Potential During Forward Bias

Recall that the electric field between the positive and negative
ions in the depletion region on either side of the junction creates
an “energy hill” that prevents free electrons from diffusing across
the junction at equilibrium. This is known as the barrier
potential.

When forward bias is applied, the free electrons are provided

with enough energy from the bias-voltage source to overcome
the barrier potential and effectively “climb the energy hill” and
cross the depletion region. The energy that the electrons require
in order to pass through the depletion region is equal to the
barrier potential.
 DIODE OPERATION
FORWARD BIAS

The Effect of the Barrier Potential During Forward Bias

In other words, the electrons give up an amount of energy

equivalent to the barrier potential when they cross the depletion
region. This energy loss results in a voltage drop across the pn
junction equal to the barrier potential (0.7 V), as indicated in
Figure 2–5(b) (in previous slide).

An additional small voltage drop occurs across the p and n

regions due to the internal resistance of the material. For doped
semiconductive material, this resistance, called the
dynamic resistance, is very small and can usually be
neglected.
 DIODE OPERATION
REVERSE BIAS
 Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current through
the diode. Figure 2–6 shows a dc voltage source connected across a
diode in the direction to produce reverse bias. This external bias voltage
is designated as VBIAS just as it was for forward bias.

 Notice that the positive side of VBIAS is connected to the n region of the
diode and the negative side is connected to the p region. Also note that
the depletion region is shown much wider than in forward bias or
equilibrium.
 DIODE OPERATION
REVERSE BIAS
 An illustration of what happens when a diode is reverse-
biased is shown in Figure 2–7. Because unlike charges
attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source “pulls” the
 free electrons, which are the majority carriers in the n region,
away from the pn junction.

 As the electrons flow toward the positive side of the voltage

source, additional positive ions are created. This results in a
widening of the depletion region and a depletion of majority
carriers.
 DIODE OPERATION
REVERSE BIAS
 In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage
source enter as valence electrons and move from hole to hole
toward the depletion region where they create additional
negative ions. This results in a widening of the depletion region
and a depletion of majority carriers.
 The flow of valence electrons can be viewed as holes being
“pulled” toward the positive side. The initial flow of charge
carriers is transitional and lasts for only a very short time after
the reverse-bias voltage is applied.
 As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority
carriers decreases. As more of the n and p regions become
depleted of majority carriers, the electric field between the
positive and negative ions increases in strength until the
potential across the depletion region equals the bias voltage,
VBIAS.
 DIODE OPERATION
REVERSE BIAS
 At this point, the transition current essentially ceases except for
a very small reverse current that can usually be neglected.

 Reverse Current : The extremely small current that exists in

reverse bias after the transition current dies out is caused by
the minority carriers in the n and p regions that are produced
by thermally generated electron-hole pairs. The small number
of free minority electrons in the p region are “pushed” toward
the pn junction by the negative bias voltage.

 When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they

“fall down the energy hill” and combine with the minority holes
in the n region as valence electrons and flow toward the
positive bias voltage, creating a small hole current.
 DIODE OPERATION
REVERSE BIAS
 Reverse Current :
 The conduction band in the p region is at a higher energy level
than the conduction band in the n region. Therefore, the
minority electrons easily pass through the depletion region
because they require no additional energy. Reverse current is
illustrated in Figure 2–8.

Summary
The current due to the minority
carriers in reverse bias is said to
be reverse saturation current. This
current is independent of the value of
the reverse bias voltage.