Presentation

topic:
Voltage To Frequency Conversion
Analog To Digital Conversion
Digital To Analog Conversion

Prsented by:
M Jawad Raza
(20013386-047)
M. Azeem
(20013386-058)
Tahir Yaseen
(20013386-057)
Voltage to frequency conversion
● When measurements are required and the transducer is some
distance from the display unit, problems can occur due to the
resistance of connecting leads. While a form of Wheatstone bridge
can be used to compensate for lead resistance, this is only suitable
for relatively short lead lengths. One method of overcoming this
problem is to use a voltage to frequency converter. Thus if a
transducer used for the measurement of temperature is a resistance
element then it could be incorporated in a Wheatstone bridge and
the resulting out-of-balance potential difference converted into a
frequency. This can then be transmitted to the distant display.
 Analog to digital conversion
The output from most transducers tends to be in analogue form, i.e. the size of the output from the
transducer is related" to the size of the input. Where a microprocessor is used as part of the measurement
or control system signal processing, the analogue output from the transducer has to be converted into
digital form before it can be used as an input to the microprocessor. The relationship between the input
and the output for an analogue to digital convers element can be expressed as

where VA is the analogue input, VR the reference voltage, b1 b2, ... bn, the digital outputs, with n being
the number of such outputs which constitute the word representing the analogue signal. Thus if, for
example, the word length was limited to eight bits then n would be 8. The word length possible
determines the resolution of the element, ie. the smallest change in VA which will result in a change in
the digital output. Because of this the output from the element goes up in jumps, or steps, rather than a
continuous form. It is for this reason that the equation uses the approximately equals sign. As an
illustration, consider a reference voltage of 1V with a four-bit word. Table 4.1 shows the outcome. A
change in the analogue voltage of 1/16 V means a change of 1 bit.
Analog to digital conversion
 Analog to digital conversion
The resolution is thus 1/16 V. Any change which is less than this will give no change in
the digital output.
If the analogue to digital converter handles a word of length n bits then a change from 0 to
1 in b, is the minimum change that can occur and so the resolution is

Analogue to digital converters typically have word lengths of8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 bits.
With the 1V reference voltage and 4-bit word the maximum value of the analogue voltage
will be 15/16V, i.e. virtually the reference voltage. The maximum value of the analogue
voltage is when all the bits are ones, i.e.

The value of the bracketed term is (1-2). Hencemaximum V VR(12)For a word length of 4
or more the bracketed term has a valuevery close to 1. analogue to digital converters
operate.
Analog to digital conversion
Example:
A thermocouple gives an output of 0.5 mV/C. What will be the word size and reference
voltage required if the system is to be used to measure temperatures from 0-200°C with a
resolution of 0.5°C?
Answer
At 200°C the thermocouple output will be 200 x 0.5= 100mV.
This would indicate a reference voltage of effectively 100 mV. The word length n required is
given by
minimum change in analogue voltage =
The minimum change required is 0.5 x 0.5= 0.25 mV. Hence

Hence n=8.6. Thus if converters with word length of 8,10,12;etc

Where available a 10-bit word length one would be selected.
Digital to analog conversion
A digital to analogue converter has an input of digital signals and an output of an analogue
signal. The analogue output VA is related to the digital input by

where VR is the reference voltage. This is the maximum voltage the analogue output can
have for the word length used. The word length is n bits, with by, by, by... b being the bits.
Thus for a 4-bit word length and a reference voltage of 1V Table 4.2 shows the analogue
outputs that would be obtained. The output goes up in steps of 1/16V. The size of these steps
depends on the word length and the refere
The size of the analogue voltage increment when there is a change from 0 to 1 in b, is
analogue voltage increment = VR2Thus an 8-bit converter with a 5V reference voltage will
give an analogue voltage which goes up in increments of
5 x 2-* =0.0195 V nce voltage.
Digital to analog conversion
 Digital to analog conversion

Example:
A microprocessor gives an output of an 8-bit
word. This is tedSTRUMENTATION through
an 8-bit digital to analogue converter to a
control valve. If the control valve requires
6.0V to be fully open what will be the
reference voltage required for the converter
and the percentage by which the valve opens
for a change in input of 1 bit?
Answer
Using the equation given above
Thank you