RESEARCH METHODS: AP1 OVERVIEW

You are required to prepare a short literature review (2000 words long) on your
chosen research topic with the following requirements:

a.The lit. review should analyze and synthesize relevant academic literature,
the contribution of each article to your chosen topic and more emphatically the
research gap your research intends to fill

b. Critically engage with each article comparing and contrasting as well as

identifying their strength and weaknesses in relation to the following:

Purpose of the study: did the results of the findings in the article address the
research questions? Was the purpose of the study achieved upon conclusion? (the
conclusion page should tell if it was done or not.
The research methods and findings: The research methods used, how significant
were the findings of the study to the research topic under review.

Sampling technique: how many? Where the participants came from, the demographics
and lots of other considerations.

Research Validity: Find out if the researcher could replicate the same study or
research using other sample units in the population.

c. Literature review requires a high level of summarizing and paraphrasing during the
synthesis of articles. (this part we are all already used to from previous assignments.)
 ASSIGNMENT SECTIONS

The assignment is divided into 3 sections:

Introduction(300 words)

Main Body(1200 words)

Conclusion(500 words)

(Note: writing a literature review for a dissertation usually does not go with the above
format. However, since we are required to produce a stand alone literature review
which is separate from the dissertation, the above format is required.
 INTRODUCTION
This section outlines the following areas:
 background of the study: start with a hook, clearly stating the basic underpinnings
of the study i.e. the evolutionary/transitional stage(s) of the research topic under
review if it is historic in nature, definition of terms associated with the topic,
statistics, facts, numbers, figures and interesting questions about the topic. For
example, if your research topic is about “ the degree of traumatization among
people living with HIV/aids in the United States of America” . Obviously, the
backgrounds of the study would be to

narrate the origin of the disease worldwide and then trace the period it was
discovered in the US.

facts/numbers of first victims of the virus in the US

as well as raising interesting questions about living with the disease and the
potential level of stigmatization it is causing among Americans.
 INTRODUCTION CONTD.
Scope of the study: this addresses the length the literature review would go to
discussing the relevant concepts, ideas, theories as well as their practical application
and or implication. Taking the topic under review here: the scope include but not
limited to the following:
 In-depth discussion of relevant concepts, theories, models, research designs,
practical illustrations and examples in relation to the research topic under review (in
this case) ‘the degree of traumatization among people living with HIV/aids in
the United States of America’ drawn from existing academic literature.
 Contributions of each literature material to the chosen field and a logical synthesis
of these sources, to formulate a well-articulated literature review needed for the
actual dissertation.
 INTRODUCTION CONTD.
 Critical analysis, evaluation and engagement of relevant literature to ascertain their
input into existing knowledge on the current research.
 Identifying the research gaps in the existing literature as a basis upon which
research questions will be raised to generate the necessity for this study.
 INTRODUCTION CONTD.

Out of Scope: This clearly states the areas of the study (i.e. the research topic) not

covered in the literature review. For example, the following would be the out-of-scope

in this assignment

1. The research questions/hypotheses the study intends to investigate

2. The research methodology adopted and potential findings emanating from the

study.

Themes of discussion: clearly state the themes (topics) that would be discussed in the

order they are talked about in the body of the literature review.
 INTRODUCTION CONTD.

Thesis statement: a good thesis statement supporting the topic of discussion should cap off the
introduction. For example, “causes of death among HIV/aids victims in the US have revealed
that majority die not because of the disease but due to the psychological injury/emotional
devastation they suffer from”.
 Main Body Contd.

There are two main parts to this section:

Element A: Source for a good range of articles ( between 12 – 15) for the literature
review and have them properly organized. Ensure these articles are peer reviews and
up-to-date. Particularly, articles written more than a decade ago may not be suitable
for a good literature review except you are defining a concept that was established
years ago. (secondary referencing may play a huge part here by citing the author of the
original article, the year and the source material (i.e. up-to-date material) where it was
derived).
 Main Body Contd.
Element B:

1. synthesizing the articles: combining the piece of articles sourced for the review in a
logical order is very important. This requires a high level of intelligence and knowledge
which we have done to a very large extent in our previous assignments. In synthesizing
articles, we compare and contrast the articles before us, plugging in ideas, theories,
concepts, illustrations/examples from different authors and determining their best possible
positions in our write-up.
Often times, there are words (transitions/referring languages) used for synthesizing
articles in literature reviews. They include but not limited to the following:
- Bond (2001) argued ……..

- Similarly, the article also argued that …..

- Unlike Bond, however, Bradley (2005) maintained that it was more about ….
- While Lee (2004) demonstrated the need to …., Mathew (2010) failed to highlight..
 Main Body Contd.

- Format for synthesizing: There are usually different formats to synthesize the articles before
you. It is left for you to discover the format type suitable/applicable to your chosen topic. The
notable formats include:
- Cause, effect and solution,

- Problem and solution,

- For or against (debatable topics),

- Question and answer, Pros and Cons, compare and contrast, etc.

Note: Find out if your research topic falls under any of the above format.

Causes/effects: For instance, the research topic under review - about “ the degree of
traumatization among people living with HIV/aids in the United States of America” falls
under cause/effect and solution.

Action required during article synthesizing: logically synthesize all sources that talk about
the:
 Main Body Contd.

1. causes of HIV/aids and state the evidence/examples of the causes given by

different authors (examples here could mean the survey/any other form of study
conducted statistically or empirically to buttress their point of what causes the
disease. (state as many causes and examples as possible from different authors)
2. Do the same for effect and state the examples provided by each author in his/her
article
3. Proceed to solutions provided by different authors and logically synthesize all
sources together with proper in-text citations.

Problem and solution: Find the problems and examples of those problems from the
various articles. The topic: “ failures of small and medium scale businesses in
Africa: a case study of the Ugandan economy. The topic here is an indication it will
take a problem and solution format while drafting its literature review.
 Main Body Contd.

Like the problems, find the solutions and examples and logically synthesize them in
the literature with adequate in-text citations.

For or Against: This is suitable when writing argumentative literature review.

Combine all the sources that point ‘for,’ stating illustrative examples from the authors
and synthesize all other sources that are against what is been discussed. More
specifically, the format is used to demonstrate the different point of view on a given
debatable research topic.
Pros and Cons: this is used in a topic that has two distinct points. Example, ‘the
introduction of bank verification number (BVN) in the Nigerian banking
system’. Here, it will be imperative to highlight the pros and cons in the use of BVN
by bank customers in Nigeria as many would have something good or bad to say
about the biometric system.
 Main Body Contd.

Compare and Contrast: Like pros and cons, this is used in a topic that has two
distinct points comparing one side of a topic to a similar topic. Example, ‘the
advantages an disadvantages of online classes vs. classroom campus classes’.
Here, it will be imperative to highlight the pros and cons of online classes, pros and
cons of traditional classroom classes and then compare and contrast both.
 Main Body Contd.

2. Critiquing the articles: It is important to note that critiquing the articles is not a
task done separately/differently from synthesizing the articles, they both go together.
Critiquing involves critically evaluating an article to spot its area of strengths
(positive critique) and weaknesses (negative critique) while offering constructive
suggestions on how best the author(s) would have conducted the research to produce
reliable results/findings. Below are the list of words suitable for critiquing an article:

Positive Critique: This was significant in that it….

The study proposed that…

She correctly points out that …..

John (2009) in a survey conducted in …. equally contributed to …..

The findings were both conclusive and influential as they ….
 Main Body Contd.

Negative Critique/limitations: Example of these statements include:

One of the limitations with this explanation is that it…

The key problem with this position is that…

The study fails to take into account the importance of …

A question that needs to be asked is …….

Etc.

Constructive Suggestions: The study may have been more useful if it had …

The findings may have been more applicable if ….

The article may have been more convincing if it ….

A persuasive argument for this could be …..

 Main Body Contd.

3. Research Design: The research design of the articles to be reviewed has a long way
to go when drafting the lit. review. There are two areas to consider here:
Data collection method
Theoretical method

a. Data collection method: We are not allowed to use primary sources but obviously
the source materials needed for the assignment would have conducted their research
using primary data. Therefore, considering the following primary data sources is
essential:
Observation: This is a good method of data collection as most important findings in
research have been accidental and captured from observations of the failures of other data
collection methods. However, in conducting observation, there is need to be un-
obstructive so that people do not change their behaviour because they are being watched.

Data collection method
Observation
Main Body Contd.
Positive critique
Learning by observation is
one of the best and reliable
methods of data collection
as other methods rely on
observation for more
reliability and potency of
results
Negative critique
Participants may change
their behaviour if they
know they are being
observed. Results from this
data collection method may
prove to be flawed with
bias. Therefore, in a bid to
derive reliable findings,
there may be need to
proceed without seeking
participants' permission.
Where this is the case,
ethical issues may arise as
there is need to inform
participants before using
them to conduct a research

Note: go through the article to spot out the above information if observation was the
means of data collection. Obviously, the researcher would give details about the data
collection method used. Therefore, if observation was adopted, there will definitely be
some flaws as highlighted above.
 Main Body Contd.

Surveys: To obtain information from people, it is often better to ask them face-to-
face, or conduct telephone surveys or mail questionnaires. Surveys are the most
widely used method of data collection in business and management research.
 Main Body Contd.

Data collection method Positive critique Negative critique

Surveys It is a widely used method Survey fatigue (if too long)
of data collection because can lead to response bias.
it saves time, money and Also, participants may
can be done via mails, withdraw from surveys that
telephone or verbal are long and time
methods. Also, it has a consuming (this is an
wide reach and gathers evidence of inaccurate
large and significant data. findings if participants
begin to withdraw. Also,
Withdraw of participants
may mean that the
population is not
adequately represented.
Where participants are
drawn from, needs to be
considered if they
adequately represent the
population
Note: As you read through the article, spot these critical elements out and critique
accordingly. Where no information is given, raise an eyebrow that the researcher did
not inform readers if there was a challenge of this nature, he/they could be hiding this.
 Main Body Contd.

Interviews: For many research, qualitative data is required to accumulate

in-depth understanding on how certain phenomenon are the way they are.
Face-to-face or telephone interviews are frequently used in business and
management research.
 Main Body Contd.

Data collection method Positive critique Negative critique

Interviews Interviews allow for mass
of information to be
collected and usually data
gathered are in-depth.
Interviews do not allow for
the population to be fully
represented because they
are usually conducted with
small sample size.
Therefore, restricted
sample sizes for this data
collection method may
question the
representativeness of the
findings.

Note: go through the article to spot out the above information. Most times, the sample
size may be separated/divided into focus groups for more efficient and reliable findings
 Main Body Contd.

Case Studies: this is a data collection research method performed on a single

individual or group as opposed to , for instance of the whole population. Conversely,
it is used when it is not possible to adopt a sampling approach that seeks to
generalize conclusions but to generalize or test a theory. In case studies, researchers
typically use a mixed data collection approach, utilizing a combination of
observation, surveys and interviews. A case study is an in-depth study which explores
issues, present and past as they affect one or more units (organizations, group,
department or person). One may use a single case study or multiple case studies,
which make for more comparative approach. Case study is an inductive research
method which is used to make generalization from a specific setting as well as to find
out if that theory or research can be replicated in other organizations or situations.
 Main Body Contd.

Data collection method Positive critique Negative critique

Case Studies Case studies can support
the theory that surrounds
the thought. They are a
good method of data
collection with reliable
findings
At some point, most
researchers think that
similar case studies have
the same findings and
results. In contrast, this
does not guarantee that the
findings presented would
be applicable to others with
similar cases.

Note: Spot the above out in any article that relies on case studies for generating
findings and tend to always think that such findings may be applicable to similar
circumstances in the future within the same organization or a different firm.
 Main Body Contd.

b. Theoretical method: A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts,

definitions and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena
(facts). Theory generation usually occur after being tested empirically. They are
often developed with inductive reason or deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning: this is the logical process of moving from specific to general.
i.e. when a particular phenomena or event repeats itself enough times, it can be
concluded that the event will continue to happen. For instance, in a firm where
senior management involvement leads to increased job satisfaction and
productivity amongst lower grades of staff in 2017, 2018, again in 2019 and
thereafter in 2020, a theory or hypothesis can be inductively developed to conclude
that “senior management involvement leads to increased job satisfaction and
productivity amongst lower grades of staff”.
 Main Body Contd.

Outcome: The above theory may seem logically correct given its constant
repetitiveness but may contain common fallacy because it could be a mere
coincidence that senior management involvement is responsible for better
productivity amongst low level employees. The question that needs to be asked is
‘what if there is no senior management involvement the following year and the years
beyond, still low level staff continue to put in high productivity in their job? Or what
if senior management still gets involved and lower staff productivity experience a
decline? What this means is that the validity of theories generalized after they have
been tested can still be questioned going forward. Thereafter, an inductive theory
(already tested) may be logically correct because it tends to assume to be ‘common
sense’ but may be materially incorrect as it may not be applicable in subsequent
situations/cases.
 Main Body Contd.

Inductive reasoning example:

1. A recession has always followed a ‘boom’ in the business cycle
2. What has happened in the past will continue to happen in the future
3. Thereafter, there will be a recession after the current ‘boom’ is over.
The above syllogism shows the nature and fallacy of inductive reasoning which
relies on the principle of regularity which in most cases can only be a matter of faith
to draw conclusions.
 Main Body Contd.

Deductive reasoning: This is the logical process of moving from general/universal

laws to specific. A general set of propositions relating to a given phenomenon is
narrowed down to a specific set of testable hypothesis or theory/findings.
Example: ‘An advertising campaign (this is the universal law in the sense that
when advertising is done, its objective is to improve sales) designed to achieve a
high level of sales is often presumed successful if sales increase’.
However, what if what the ad. was specifically meant to achieve (i.e. increase sales)
did not happen, was the campaign a failure? Logically, we would say the ad. failed
because it did not achieve its intended purpose. The fallacy to the above assumption
is that the campaign may not have been a failure because without a campaign there is
no way of knowing what sales would have done. in other word, sales results cannot
be judged by the outcome of ad campaign
 Main Body Contd.

Furthermore, assuming it (ad. Campaign being the universal law) was responsible for
dropped sales in 2017 due to empirical findings, it is not enough to make general
hypothesis or theory that it will always be responsible for drop in sales at any given
time.

Note: any theory/hypothesis presented in an article or evidence (whether real

evidence, documentary evidence, or testimonial evidence) effort should be made to
critically assess the deductive or inductive underpinnings under which such theory or
hypothesis was developed.
 Main Body Contd.

Sampling: This is the process of selecting a suitable sample for the purpose of
determining parameters for the entire population. In critiquing an article, one should
bear in mind the sample size the researcher(s) used, whether the size was statistically
justified, where participants that constituted the sample came from, their
demographics and what method of sampling was adopted. How representative is the
sample is a thing to look out for. Using a representative sample to draw conclusion
about the real world is the best approach to a good research.
There are two kinds of sample, viz probability and non-probability sampling. In
probability sampling, every element of the population has an equal chance of being
selected which erases the chances of bias. Non-probability sampling on the other
hand gives room for the sample units to be selected based on personal judgment.
Certain study/research may call for the use of non-probability sampling. For
instance, a study involving the performance of high-level organization managers may
require that only the firm staff be included in assessing/evaluating managers’
performance while excluding customers from the list of units to make up the sample
 Main Body Contd.

Whether or not this inclusion/exclusion is justifiable is something to watch out for

while reviewing an article.
Each sample type has its own strengths and drawbacks. For example, randomized
controlled trials (sample units are randomly assigned to two or more groups – the
experimental group and the control group) are the gold standard for experimental
research because the results that they provide are considered to be the more reliable
ones and the ones that can generalize to other population. However, the weakness to
this sampling design is that it comes with limited sample size which may not be a
true representation of the population. However, is the case, watch out for the
following strength (positive critique) and constraints (negative critique) that come
along with chosen a sample research design:
a. The sample type – probability or non-probability to ascertain the level of
bias in determining the sample for the research.
 Main Body Contd.

b. How the sample was recruited – where the participants came from. What is
their demographic e.g. race, sex, religion, region, group, etc. for example, a
researcher conducting a study of how the internet influences the 21 st century mode of
learning and using only students from certain region as sample units . There may be
an element of bias in deciding how members of a sample are selected. Again, if the
study involves participants from different places of the world, you may want to point
out those excluded by saying there was no Hispanics, no African-Americans,
Latinos, etc.
c. Determine whether or not inclusion or exclusion criteria is justifiable: if
non was stated, raise the issue up by stating that certain categories of people were
excluded from the sample unit and no justification was made for that.
 Conclusion

a. A brief summary of the key topics or themes and issues identified in the lit.
review discussion so far.
b. Also state briefly how your literature review intends to contribute the chosen field
of knowledge. (research gaps)
Thank you for attending today’s session
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