1.

Cells: The Basic

Units of life
 Molecule
level

What is a
polymer?
A polymer is a substance made of molecules, called monomers, linked together by covalent bonds

Covalen
Monomers t
bond

Polymer
 What is the difference Molecule
between an organic and an level
inorganic molecule? Carbohydrate Monosaccharides
s

Lipids Triglycerides

Organic

Proteins Amino acids

Biomolecules
Nucleic acids Nucleotides

Water
Inorganic
Mineral salts
 Molecule
level
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides (Glucose,
fructose, galactose)

Sugars

Disaccharides

Functions
- Provide energy
- Structural function(Cell
Polysaccharides (starch, cellulose and
walls) glycogen)
 Molecule

Lipids Triglycerides
level

Fats
Insolubility = Hydrophobic

Functions
- Energy storage
- Structures
(Cell
membranas)
- Cell regulation (Chemical
messengers: Hormones)
- Thermoregulation
 What does it mean that an
Proteins Amino acids (20, 8 essentials) amino acid is essential?

Functions
- Structures (Muscles,
bones, skin)
- Transport
(neurotransmitters
, plasma proteins..)
- Protective
(antibodies)
- Regulatory
function
(Enzymes)
 Molecule
level
Nucleic acids Nucleotides

Functions
The main function of nucleic
acids is to hold hereditary
information, which controls
cell functioning, and pass it
on to descendants

Microscope
s
Simple Micíoscopes
It consists of a tiny aspheíical
lens. It can manage between
50-300 magnifications.
Compound Micíoscopes
It was invented at the end of
the 16th centuíy. It is based
on the combination of
vaíious lenses. It is easy to
use and can manage up to
2,000 magnifications.
Cell level
Electíon Micíoscope
It was invented in the 1930s.
Light is íeplaced by a beam of
electíons and electíomagnetic
fields aíe used instead of
lenses. It can manage up to one
million magnifications.
 Cell level

Microscopes. First
observations
wheíe do the “cell” name come fíom? Lateí, having built his
In 1665, Robeít Hooke obseíved undeí a own simple micíoscopes,
compound micíoscope a piece of coík. He Anton van Leeuwenhoek
obseíved numeíous poíes that íeminded him obseíved and descíibed
of honeycomb cells. In fact, it was Hooke who cells such as íed blood
coined the teím cell. ľhese “cells” weíe the cells.
cell walls fíom death plant cells. He was íecognised as the
discoveíeí of the micíobial woíld
ľhanks to his obseívations of
píotozoa, micíoscopic algae,
yeast and bacteíia, which he
called animalcules oí
‘small animals’.
 Matthias Schleiden ľheodoí Schwann

Cell
theory Píinciple of the Cell ľheoíy
• All living things aíe made up of cells.
• All cells come fíom otheí píe-existing cells.
• All cells caííy out the vital functions of
living things: nutíition, íepíoduction and
inteíaction.
• All cells contain the genetic infoímation
Rudolf Viíchow necessaíy to íegulate cell functions and
tíansmit this infoímation to theií
descendants. Spanish histologist Santiago
Ramón y Cajal established
that neuíons aíe independent
cells, thus stating that cell theoíy
could also be applied to neívous
tissue.
 Some living things exist in the cellulaí level of
oíganisation. ľhey aíe single-celled oíganisms
and caííy out all the oíganism’s vital functions.

Answeí to the following questions

- What aíe single-celled
oíganisms called? What about
vaíious-celled oíganisms?
- In which of the five
kingdoms
aíe single-celled oíganisms?
 Cyanobacteria
Work in pairs or small groups.
Investigate cyanobacteria to find out:​
• If they are unicellular or
multicellular.​
• Whether they are prokaryotes
or
eukaryotes.​
• What kingdom do
cyanobacteria
belong to?
• If they are autotrophic or
heterotrophic?
• Why they are called algae and how
are they different from true algae?
• How they changed our planet’s
atmosphere?
• Why are cyanobacteria
important in
the cell evolution?
THE ORGANISATION OF LIVING
MATTER
Living things made up of a single cell aíe called unicellulaí oíganisms. ľhose which aíe
made up of gíoups of cells that aíe oíganised to vaíying degíees aíe multicellulaí
oíganisms. In both cases, cells have a similaí stíuctuíe and individually caííy out the life
píocesses.

In which of the five kingdoms aíe single-celled oíganisms?

Monera
Fungi (yeast) Protist Protist
(Bacteria)
(protozoa) (unicellular algae)
 Cell level

Cell
characteristics
Size
Cells are measured in
Shape
In the multicellular Prokaryotic
Types
Eukaryotic (Animal
micrometres (μm = 10−6𝑚) organisms, the shape of and Plant cells)
the cell is dictated by the
function Cells that contain the Cells that have a
The diameter of most cell is genetic material free in true nucleus,
between 0.5 µm and 20 µm. the cytoplasm containing the
genetic material

Because cells aíe so small, in

most cases it is necessaíy to
use a micíoscope to see
them.
 Cell level

The Cell and its

structure
Cell membrane
• Definition: bilayer that surrounds the cell. Cell membrane Cytoplasm
• Function: to protect the cell and to control the
substances that come in and out of the cell.
• Characteristics: It is selectively permeable, meaning that Ribosomes
it only allows certain molecules to pass through it.

Cytoplasm
• Definition: gel-like substance that fills the cell.
• Function: to contain many different organelles that carry out a variety
of vital functions, as well as to store important genetic material.

Ribosomes Genetic mateíial

• Definition: the smallest organelle in a cell. • Definition: one oí seveíal nucleic acid molecules
• Function: to produce proteins. • Function: to contíol cell functions. It also stoíes and
tíansfeís heíeditaíy infoímation.
Evolution of
cells
ľheíe aíe seveíal theoíies which attempt to explain how píokaíyotic cells evolved into
eukaíyotic cells.
One of these theoíies states that the nucleaí membíane that suííounds the genetic
mateíial could have developed fíom the plasma membíane folding inwaíds into the
cytoplasm of an ancient píokaíyotic cell.

Origin of the
nucleus’s
double layer
 Theory on
Endosymbiosis
In 1967, the Ameíican biologist Lynn Maígulis (1938–2011) píesented heí theoíy
on endosymbiosis to explain the oíigin of eukaíyotic oíganelles fíom píokaíyotic cells.

Origin of the Origin of the

Mitochondria Chloroplast
A large anaerobic
Symbiotic relationship: the Similarly, The incorporation of special
prokaryotic cell captures an
captured cell obtains refuge and bacteria (cyanobacteria) would have created
aerobic prokaryotic cell.
food in exchange for producing photosynthetic eukaryotic cells
energy through aerobic respiration.
 What are the functions of pili?

Prokaryotic
ľcells
h e píokaíyotic cellulaí oíganisation model is the most píimitive. Píokaíyotes aíe
unicellulaí oíganisms, such as bacteíia.

Organelles Functions
Cell wall Shape

Capsule Colonies, prevent from drying

out and defensive role
Flagella Movement

Pili ?
Prokaryotic
ľcells
h e píokaíyotic cellulaí oíganisation model is the most píimitive. Píokaíyotes aíe
unicellulaí oíganisms, such as bacteíia.
COLONIES

Cocci Bacilli

Spirilla
 Bacteria
Depending on the chemical composition of bacteria cell walls, they are divided into two categories.

Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria have a characteristic chemical composition. Many are extremophiles, meaning they
live in extreme environments.

Halophilic Thermoacidophilic Methanogenic

proliferate in environments with live in very acidic environments Inhabit low-oxygen
high levels of salinity. They cause with high temperatures environments where organic
the lakes they inhabit to turn (up to 80 ºC). material decomposes.
pink.
 Bacteria
Depending on the chemical composition of bacteria cell walls, they are divided into two categories.

Eubacteria
Most prokaryotic organisms belong to the eubacteria group. Their cellular chemical composition is very similar to
that of eukaryotic organisms.

Enteric Heterotrophic Cyanobacteria

Can be found in the intestines
of mammals. They live
in symbiosis with their hosts:
bacteria prevent
the proliferation of pathogenic
microorganisms and, in turn,
receive nutrients from the
host’s digestion.
Many heterotrophic bacteria, known
to be aerobic because they need
oxygen to survive, decompose dead
matter and the remains of organic
matter and then convert them into
inorganic matter that can be used by
autotrophic organisms. (Decomposers)
Also called blue-green algae. Sometimes
form multicellular filaments (colonies).
They are responsible for the
accumulation of oxygen in the
atmosphere through photosynthesis.
They are larger than other
prokaryotes.

Escherichia coli
Eukaryotic
cell
ľ h e eukaíyotic cellulaí oíganisation model appeaís in unicellulaí oíganisms such as píotozoa
and algae (píotist Kingdom) and yeast (Fungi kingdom), and in multicellulaí oíganisms such
as plants and animals.

In teíms of theií nutíition, inteíaction and

íepíoduction, theíe aíe two models of
eukaíyotic cells: animal cells and plant
cells. ľ hese two types of cells have
multiple stíuctuíes and oíganelles in
common. ľ hey also have theií
own
specific oíganelles and stíuctuíes.
Organelles/Structures Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic Animal Cell Eukaryotic Plant Cell

Cell membrane Always Always Always

Ribosomes Always Always Always
Cytoplasm Always Always Always
Genetic Material Always Always Always
Cytoeskeleton Always Always Always
Pili Always Never Never
Capsule Sometimes Never Never
Flagella Sometimes Sometimes Sometimes
Cell Wall Always Never Always
Nucleus Never Always Always
Endoplasmic reticulum Never Always Always
(RER, SER)
Golgi Body Never Always Always
Centrosome Never Always Never
Mitochondria Never Always Always
Peroxisomes Never Sometimes Sometimes
Vacuoles Never Always Always (big)
Organelles/Structures Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic Animal Cell Eukaryotic Plant Cell

Cell membrane Always Always Always

Complete the table with

the infoímation. Use the
teíms “always,
sometimes, and neveí” t o
íefeí to the píesence of
specific stíuctuíes in
each cell type
Cell
Membrane
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm

The cell membrane consists of lipids and proteins. It

protects the cell from the outside and regulates substance
transfer between the outside and inside of the cell.

The plasma membrane is fluid, given that its molecules

have the ability to rotate and move laterally. Its degree of Nucleus
fluidity depends on the type of lipids that it is comprised
of.
 The membrane proteins can be immersed
in the double layer or just attached to
Cell one of the layers. Some proteins of the
membrane act as stimulant receptors

Membrane
double
layer of lipid
molecules

In animal cells, this fluidity is contíolled

Draw the structure of the cell
by cholesteíol molecules, which aíe inseíted between the
membrane pointing out its parts.
íest of the lipids and make it íelatively íigid.
THE EXCHANGE OF SUBSTANCES THROUGH THE
PLASMA
Substances
MEMBRANETransport method
Small molecules (O₂, CO₂, Na⁺, K⁺) Diffusion
Water Osmosis
Large molecules Endocytosis
Formation of an inward fold or
invagination of the membrane
towards the inside of the cell.

Exocytosis
Large molecules are expelled from
the cell to the outside by the same
process of endocytosis but in the
opposite direction.
 Remember Robert
Hooke! the term “cell”

Cell come from the cell

wall structure

Wall
ľ h e cell wall is a type of extíacellulaí matíix of plant cells. It is made up of a polysacchaíide
called cellulose. ľ h e cellulose fibíes aíe laid down in diffeíent-facing layeís to píovide the cell
with íigidity and keep its shape. Vaíious polysacchaíides and píoteins join the cellulose fibíes
togetheí, cíeating a íesistant and complex netwoík.
Cytoplas
m
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm

ľ h e cytoplasm is the total content between the

cell nucleus and the plasma membíane. It is
made up of a wateíy medium called the cytosol.
ľhis is wheíe the cytoskeleton, cell oíganelles
and also biomolecules aíe involved in the
diffeíent chemical íeactions that occuí inside
cells aíe suspended.

Nucleus
Cytoskeleto
n Stíuctuíe: Complex netwoík of inteíconnected píotein filaments (micíotubules
of tubulin, micíofilaments of actin and inteímediate filaments).
Function: Gives the cell its shape, paíticipate in the movements and
oíganization of mateíials and cell oíganelles.

Microfilaments

Intermediate Microtubules
filaments
Centrosome
Centrosome
Structure: Composed of proteins that form Centrioles
microtubules that in turn form two perpendicular Aster fibers
centrioles.

Functions:
- Formation and organization of the cytoskeleton
- Participate in cell division
- Make up cilia and flagella that allow the cell to
move.

The centrosome is found Microtubules

only in animal cells.
 Eukaíyotic íibosomes aíe laígeí than

Ribosome píokaíyotic ones. Píokaíyotic íibosomes aíe

similaí to those which appeaí in mitochondíia
and chloíoplasts. ľ í y to justify this fact with the

s knowledge of this unit.

Location: ľhey aíe spíead in the cytoplasm, attached to the membíanes of the
endoplasmic íeticulum oí inside otheí oíganelles, such as mitochondíia and chloíoplasts.

Large subunit
Stíuctuíe: Ribosomes have two
subunits, made up of píotein and
RNA.

Function: to make cell píoteins fíom

the infoímation píovided by the
nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
Small subunit
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Structure: Membranous system, similar to the plasma
membrane. It forms a complicated network of
interconnected sacs and tube-like structures, which are
also connected to the Golgi body and the nuclear
membrane.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) has

ribosomes attached to its walls and is involved in
the synthesis of proteins. These proteins will constitute
part of the membranes of the reticulum, the cell
membrane and the membranes of other organelles.
Some proteins will also be exported outside the cell.

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) participates

in the synthesis of lipids, which will also be incorporated
into different membranous systems in the cell.
Golgi
Body
Structure: it is made up of a stack of disc-shaped membranous sacs close to the endoplasmic reticulum. It has a cis
and a trans face.
The cis face is opposite the endoplasmic reticulum
and receives vesicles from it with the synthesised Functions:
proteins and lipids. - Produce most of the polysaccharides in
a cell.
- Maturation of the proteins and lipids
from the endoplasmic reticulum. This
maturation occurs while these molecules
are being transported from the cis
face to the trans face. Then, they are
packaged into vesicles to be secreted to
the outside or distributed to different
The trans face is opposite the cell places inside the cell.
membrane. Secretion vesicles are released from here.
Lysosomes &
Peroxisomes
Lysosomes aíe vesicles geneíated by the Golgi body that contain acidic
digestive enzymes. ľhese enzymes digest mateíials fíom outside oí
inside the cell, such as its own waste, food paíticles oí phagocytised
micíooíganisms. ľ h e end píoducts of digestion will be íeleased into the
cytosol oí excíeted by the cell.
The lysosomes are found
only in animal cells.

Peíoxisomes aíe oíganelles suííounded by a single membíane.

ľhey aíe found in neaíly all types of eukaíyotic cells. ľogetheí
with mitochondíia, they aíe the main cell compaítments which
use oxygen. Peíoxisomes aíe íesponsible foí the oxidation
íeactions that allow toxic substances to be eliminated.
Vacuole
s
Vacuoles are membranous organelles present in almost
all types of cells. They are larger in plant cells, and take
up between 30% and 90% of cell volume.
Functions:
- Store water and various substances that the cell
must eliminate, assimilate, digest or reserve.
- Allow cell volume to increase. They exert pressure
on the cell wall, maintaining turgidity and stopping
the plant from withering.
- Digestion function through digestive enzymes.

One cell can contain several different vacuoles, each

with different functions.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are organelles which are located in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.
Intermembrane
Structure space
- Double membrane: outside Outside
membrane, intermembrane Ribosomes membrane
DNA
space and inside membrane
- The inside membrane has
folds called
mitochondrial crests.
- Mitochondrial matrix
- DNA
- Ribosomes Mitochondrial
Mitochondrial crest
matrix
Mitochondria & Cellular
Respiration
Function: Mitochondíia píovide eukaíyotic cells with theií souíce of eneígy thíough cellulaí íespiíation.
It involves bíeaking down oíganic fuels by moleculaí oxygen, giving the cell the eneígy that it needs.

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + eneígy

Glucose (C6H12O6), in the píesence of oxygen (O2) and by means of a seíies of exotheímic íeactions, is
conveíted into caíbon dioxide (CO2) and wateí (H2O). Eneígy is íeleased.

Enzymes in the cíests and the matíix aíe involved in cellulaí íespiíation.
 What advantages does having

Chloroplast DNA bring to mitochondria and

chloroplasts?

s Outside
membrane and
intermembrane
Chloroplasts are the most characteristic
space
organelles in plant cells.
Thylakoid
Structure
- Double membrane.
- Stroma (inner fluid)
- Thylakoids: interconnected and
flattened membranous sacs that
contain chlorophyll and other
photosynthetic pigments to capture
light energy. The thylakoids can be
stacked, forming structures called
Grana DNA Stroma Ribosomes grana.
- DNA
- Ribosomes
Chloroplasts &
Photosynthesis The photosynthesis process is carried out in the chloroplasts. It consists of converting
inorganic matter into organic matter using solar light as a source of energy.

Photosynthesis occurs in two stages:

Light Reaction
Dark reaction
Light energy Chemical energy
Inorganic matter (CO and H) Organic matter (Glucose)
Water molecules Hydrogen and oxygen atoms
Hydrolysis

The chemical reactions that occur in photosynthesis can be simplified as follows:

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), through different endothermic reactions, are converted into glucose
(C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2), which is released.
The Nucleolus Chromatin Pore

Nucleus
The nucleus contains most of the genetic material in a
eukaryotic cell.

Structure:
- Double nuclear membrane with pores (exchange of
molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm) and
ribosomes attached.
- Chromatin: complex of DNA and proteins. The main
proteins are histones, which help to protect and stabilise
the DNA.
- Nucleolus: nuclear subdomain where ribosomes are
produced.

Functions: The nucleus is responsible for controlling cell

functions and is related to the transfer of traits between
progenitors and their descendants. The outer membrane is continuous with Ribosomes
the membrane of the endoplasmic
reticulum.
Eukaryotic Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
RER Cell membrane

cell

Lysosomes

Nucleus

SER Centrosome
Golgy Body
 Create your own table indicating
the main differences between
animal and plant cells

Animal Eukaryotic cell Plant Eukaryotic cell