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EEE 498/598 Overview of Electrical Engineering
EEE 498/598 Overview of Electrical Engineering
Overview of Electrical
Engineering
Lecture 4:
Electrostatics: Electrostatic
Shielding; Poisson’s and Laplace’s
Equations; Capacitance; Dielectric
Materials and Permittivity
1
Lecture 4 Objectives
To continue our study of electrostatics
with electrostatic shielding; Poisson’s and
Laplace’s equations; capacitance; and
dielectric materials and permittivity.
Lecture 4
2
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell
Consider a point charge at the center of a
spherical metallic shell:
Electrically
b neutral
a
Q
Lecture 4
3
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
The applied electric field is given by
Q
E app aˆ r 2
4 0 r
Lecture 4
4
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
The total electric field can be obtained using Gauss’s law together with
our knowledge of how fields behave in a conductor.
Lecture 4
5
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
a 2) ar b
3) r b
b
Dr (r ) 0
Lecture 4
7
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
Lecture 4
8
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
Gaussian surfaces
for which
0r a
Gaussian surfaces
for which
ar b
Gaussian surfaces
for which
r b
Lecture 4
9
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
For
0r a Qencl Q
For r b Qencl Q
Lecture 4
10
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
For a r b Qencl 0
since the electric field is zero inside
conductor.
A surface charge must exist on the inner
surface and be given by
Q
qesa 2
4a
Lecture 4
11
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
Since the conducting shell is initially
neutral, a surface charge must also exist
on the outer surface and be given by
Q
qesb 2
4b
Lecture 4
12
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
(4) For each Gaussian surface, evaluate the
integral
S
D d s DS surface area
of Gaussian
surface.
magnitude of D
on Gaussian
surface.
D d s Dr r 4 r
2
S
Lecture 4
13
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
(5) Solve for D on each Gaussian surface
Qencl
D
S
(6) Evaluate E as
D
E
0
Lecture 4
14
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
Q
ˆ
a
4 r
r 2
, 0r a
0
E 0, ar b
Q
aˆ r 2
, r b
4 0 r
Lecture 4
15
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
The induced field is given by
0, 0r a
Q
E ind E E app aˆ r 2
, ar b
4 0 r
0, r b
Lecture 4
16
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
E
total
electric
field Eapp
a b r
Eind
Lecture 4
17
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
The electrostatic potential is obtained by
taking the line integral of E. To do this
correctly, we must start at infinity (the
reference point or ground) and “move in” back
toward the point charge.
For r > b
r
Q
V r Er dr
4 0 r
Lecture 4
18
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
Since the conductor is an equipotential
body (and potential is a continuous
function), we have for
ar b
Q
V r V b
4 0b
Lecture 4
19
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
For 0 r a
r
V r V b Er dr
a
Q 1 1 1
b r a
4 0
Lecture 4
20
Ungrounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
V
No metallic shell
a b r
Lecture 4
21
Grounded Spherical Metallic
Shell
When the conducting sphere is grounded, we
can consider it and ground to be one huge
conducting body at ground (zero) potential.
Electrons migrate from the ground, so that the
conducting sphere now has an excess charge
exactly equal to -Q. This charge appears in the
form of a surface charge density on the inner
surface of the sphere.
Lecture 4
22
Grounded Spherical Metallic
Shell
There is no longer a surface charge on the outer
surface of the sphere.
The total field outside the sphere is zero.
The electrostatic potential of the sphere is zero.
- - - b
- -
a
- Q -
- -
-
Lecture 4
23
Grounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
E
total
electric
field Eapp
a b R
Eind
Lecture 4
24
Grounded Spherical Metallic
Shell (Cont’d)
V
Grounded
metallic shell acts
as a shield.
R
a b
Lecture 4
25
The Need for Poisson’s and
Laplace’s Equations
So far, we have studied two approaches
for finding the electric field and
electrostatic potential due to a given
charge distribution.
Lecture 4
26
The Need for Poisson’s and
Laplace’s Equations (Cont’d)
Method 1: given the position of all the
charges, find the electric field and electrostatic
potential using
(A)
qev r R dv
E r 3
V
4 0 R
P
V r E d l
Lecture 4
27
The Need for Poisson’s and
Laplace’s Equations (Cont’d)
(B)
qev r dv
V r
V
4 0 R
E r V r
Lecture 4
28
The Need for Poisson’s and
Laplace’s Equations (Cont’d)
Method 2: Find the electric field and
electrostatic potential using
Gauss’s Law
Dds q
S V
ev dv
P
V r E d l
Lecture 4
29
The Need for Poisson’s and
Laplace’s Equations (Cont’d)
Consider the following problem:
What are E and V in the region?
r
V V1 V V2
Conducting
bodies Neither Method 1 nor
Method 2 can be used!
Lecture 4
30
The Need for Poisson’s and
Laplace’s Equations (Cont’d)
Poisson’s equation is a differential equation for
the electrostatic potential V. Poisson’s equation
and the boundary conditions applicable to the
particular geometry form a boundary-value
problem that can be solved either analytically for
some geometries or numerically for any geometry.
After the electrostatic potential is evaluated, the
electric field is obtained using
E r V r
Lecture 4
31
Derivation of Poisson’s Equation
For now, we shall assume the only
materials present are free space and
conductors on which the electrostatic
potential is specified. However,
Poisson’s equation can be generalized for
other materials (dielectric and magnetic
as well).
Lecture 4
32
Derivation of Poisson’s Equation
(Cont’d)
qev
D qev E
0
qev
E V V
0
2
V
Lecture 4
33
Derivation of Poisson’s Equation
(Cont’d)
2 qev Poisson’s
V equation
0
2 is the Laplacian operator. The Laplacian of a scalar
function is a scalar function equal to the divergence of the
gradient of the original scalar function.
Lecture 4
34
Laplacian Operator in Cartesian,
Cylindrical, and Spherical Coordinates
Lecture 4
35
Laplace’s Equation
Laplace’s equation is the homogeneous form of
Poisson’s equation.
We use Laplace’s equation to solve problems where
potentials are specified on conducting bodies, but
no charge exists in the free space region.
2 Laplace’s
V 0 equation
Lecture 4
36
Uniqueness Theorem
A solution to Poisson’s or Laplace’s
equation that satisfies the given boundary
conditions is the unique (i.e., the one and
only correct) solution to the problem.
Lecture 4
37
Potential Between Coaxial Cylinders
Using Laplace’s Equation
Two conducting coaxial cylinders exist such that
V a V0 y
V b 0
+
V0 a x
Lecture 4
38
Potential Between Coaxial Cylinders
Using Laplace’s Equation (Cont’d)
Assume from symmetry that
V V
2 1 d d
V 0
d d
Lecture 4
39
Potential Between Coaxial Cylinders
Using Laplace’s Equation (Cont’d)
Two successive integrations yield
V C1 ln C2
The two constants are obtained from the two
BCs:
V a V0 C1 ln a C2
V b 0 C1 ln b C2
Lecture 4
40
Potential Between Coaxial Cylinders
Using Laplace’s Equation (Cont’d)
Solving for C1 and C2, we obtain:
C1
V0 V0 ln b
C2
ln a / b lna / b
The potential is
V0
V ln
ln a / b b
Lecture 4
41
Potential Between Coaxial Cylinders
Using Laplace’s Equation (Cont’d)
The electric field between the plates is
given by: dV V0
E V aˆ aˆ
d lnb / a
The surface charge densities on the inner
and outer conductors are given by
0V0
qesa 0 aˆ E a
a ln b / a
0V0
qesb 0 aˆ E b
b ln b / a
Lecture 4
42
Capacitance of a Two Conductor
System
The capacitance of a two conductor system is
the ratio of the total charge on one of the
conductors to the potential difference between
that conductor and the other conductor.
+ - Q
V2 V1
C
V12
+
V12 = V2-V1
Lecture 4
43
Capacitance of a Two Conductor
System
Capacitance is a positive quantity
measured in units of Farads.
Capacitance is a measure of the ability of
a conductor configuration to store charge.
Lecture 4
44
Capacitance of a Two Conductor
System
The capacitance of an isolated conductor
can be considered to be equal to the
capacitance of a two conductor system
where the second conductor is an infinite
distance away from the first and at
ground potential.
Q
C
V
Lecture 4
45
Capacitors
A capacitor is an electrical device consisting of
two conductors separated by free space or another
conducting medium.
To evaluate the capacitance of a two conductor
system, we must find either the charge on each
conductor in terms of an assumed potential
difference between the conductors, or the potential
difference between the conductors for an assumed
charge on the conductors.
Lecture 4
46
Capacitors (Cont’d)
The former method is the more general
but requires solution of Laplace’s
equation.
The latter method is useful in cases where
the symmetry of the problem allows us to
use Gauss’s law to find the electric field
from a given charge distribution.
Lecture 4
47
Parallel-Plate Capacitor
Determine an approximate expression for the
capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor by
neglecting fringing.
Conductor 2
d A
Conductor 1
Lecture 4
48
Parallel-Plate Capacitor (Cont’d)
“Neglecting fringing” means to assume that
the field that exists in the real problem is the
same as for the infinite problem.
z
z=d V = V12
z=0 V=0
Lecture 4
49
Parallel-Plate Capacitor (Cont’d)
Determine the potential between the plates
by solving Laplace’s equation.
2
2 dV
V 2 0
dz
V z 0 0
V z d V12
Lecture 4
50
Parallel-Plate Capacitor (Cont’d)
2
dV
2
0 V z c1 z c2
dz
V z 0 0 c 2
V12
V z d V12 c1d c1
d
V12
V z z
d
Lecture 4
51
Parallel-Plate Capacitor (Cont’d)
dV V12
E V aˆ z aˆ z
dz d
Lecture 4
52
Parallel-Plate Capacitor (Cont’d)
0V12 A
Q qes 2 A
d
Lecture 4
53
Parallel-Plate Capacitor (Cont’d)
Q 0 A
C
V12 d
Lecture 4
54
Dielectric Materials
A dielectric (insulator) is a medium which possess no
(or very few) free electrons to provide currents due to
an impressed electric field.
Although there is no macroscopic migration of charge
when a dielectric is placed in an electric field,
microscopic displacements (on the order of the size of
atoms or molecules) of charge occur resulting in the
appearance of induced electric dipoles.
Lecture 4
55
Dielectric Materials (Cont’d)
A dielectric is said to be polarized when induced
electric dipoles are present.
Although all substances are polarizable to some
extent, the effects of polarization become
important only for insulating materials.
The presence of induced electric dipoles within the
dielectric causes the electric field both inside and
outside the material to be modified.
Lecture 4
56
Polarizability
Polarizability is a measure of the ability
of a material to become polarized in the
presence of an applied electric field.
Polarization occurs in both polar and
nonpolar materials.
Lecture 4
57
Electronic Polarizability
electron
cloud nucleus In the absence of an
applied electric field,
the positively charged
nucleus is surrounded
by a spherical electron
cloud with equal and
opposite charge.
Outside the atom, the
electric field is zero.
Lecture 4
58
Electronic Polarizability (Cont’d)
Eapp In the presence of an
applied electric field,
the electron cloud is
distorted such that it
is displaced in a
direction (w.r.t. the
nucleus) opposite to
that of the applied
electric field.
Lecture 4
59
Electronic Polarizability (Cont’d)
e e The net effect is that
each atom becomes a
small charge dipole
which affects the
p e E loc total electric field
both inside and
dipole outside the material.
moment polarizability
(C-m) (F-m2)
Lecture 4
60
Ionic Polarizability
negative positive
ion ion In the absence of an
applied electric field,
the ionic molecules
are randomly
oriented such that the
net dipole moment
within any small
volume is zero.
Lecture 4
61
Ionic Polarizability (Cont’d)
Eapp In the presence of an
applied electric field,
the dipoles tend to
align themselves
with the applied
electric field.
Lecture 4
62
Ionic Polarizability (Cont’d)
The net effect is that
e e each ionic molecule is
a small charge dipole
which aligns with the
p i E loc applied electric field
and influences the
dipole total electric field
moment polarizability both inside and
(C-m) (F-m2) outside the material.
Lecture 4
63
Orientational Polarizability
In the absence of an
applied electric field,
the polar molecules
are randomly
oriented such that the
net dipole moment
within any small
volume is zero.
Lecture 4
64
Orientational Polarizability (Cont’d)
Eapp In the presence of an
applied electric field,
the dipoles tend to
align themselves
with the applied
electric field.
Lecture 4
65
Orientational Polarizability (Cont’d)
The net effect is that
e e each polar molecule is
a small charge dipole
which aligns with the
p o E loc applied electric field
and influences the
dipole total electric field
moment polarizability both inside and
(C-m) (F-m2) outside the material.
Lecture 4
66
Polarization Per Unit Volume
The total polarization of a given material
may arise from a combination of
electronic, ionic, and orientational
polarizability.
The polarization per unit volume is
given by
P N p N T E loc
Lecture 4
67
Polarization Per Unit Volume (Cont’d)
T e i o
Lecture 4
68
Polarization Per Unit Volume (Cont’d)
macroscopic field.
For solids 1
N T
E loc E 1
3 0
Lecture 4
69
Polarization Per Unit Volume (Cont’d)
P 0 e E
electron
susceptibility
(dimensionless)
Lecture 4
70
Dielectric Materials
The effect of an applied electric field on a
dielectric material is to create a net dipole
moment per unit volume P.
The dipole moment distribution sets up induced
secondary fields:
E E app E ind
Lecture 4
71
Volume and Surface Bound
Charge Densities
A volume distribution of dipoles may be
represented as an equivalent volume (qevb) and
surface (qesb) distribution of bound charge.
These charge distributions are related to the
dipole moment distribution:
qevb P
qesb P nˆ
Lecture 4
72
Gauss’s Law in Dielectrics
Gauss’s law in differential form in free space:
0 E qev
0 E qev qevb
Lecture 4
73
Displacement Flux Density
0 E qev qevb qev P
0 E P qev
Lecture 4
74
General Forms of Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s law in differential form:
D qev
S
D d s Qencl
Lecture 4
75
Permittivity Concept
Assuming that
P 0e E
we have D 0 1 e E E
Lecture 4
77
Permittivity Concept (Cont’d)
For the most part in macroscopic
electromagnetics, we specify the permittivity
of the material and if necessary calculate the
dipole moment distribution within the medium
by using
P D 0 E 0 E
Lecture 4
78
Relative Permittivity
The relative permittivity of a dielectric is
the ratio of the permittivity of the
dielectric to the permittivity of free space
r
0
Lecture 4
79