Forensic Chemistry lecture

Week 10
CONCEPT 0f DNA
HAIRS
 Concept of DNA
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
 DNA Overview - All organisms are made up of cells.
The average human has approximately 100 trillion
cells. All cells except red blood cells contain genetic
material known as Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA).
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that
contains the genetic instructions used in the
development and functioning of all known living
organisms with the exception of some viruses.
The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of
information. DNA is often compared to a set of
blueprints, like a recipe or a code, since it contains the
instructions needed to construct other components of
cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA
segments that carry this genetic information are called
genes, but other DNA sequences have structural
purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this
genetic information.
 DNA is a powerful tool because each person's DNA is
different from every other individual's, except for
identical twins. Because of that difference, DNA collected
from a crime scene can either link
a suspect to the evidence or eliminate a suspect,
similar to the use of fingerprints. It also can identify a
victim through DNA from relatives, even when
nobody can be found. And when evidence from one
crime scene is compared with evidence from
another, those crime scenes can be linked to the
same perpetrator.

a. Where Is DNA Contained in the Human Body?

DNA is contained in blood, semen, skin cells, tissue,
organs, muscle, brain cells, bone, teeth, hair, saliva,
mucus, perspiration, fingernails, urine, feces, etc.
b. Physical vs Biological Evidence
Physical evidence is any tangible object that can
connect an offender to a crime scene. Biological
evidence, which contains DNA, is a type of physical
evidence. However, biological evidence is not always
visible to the naked eye.
c. DNA Testing
DNA testing has expanded the types of useful biological
evidence. All biological evidence found at crime scenes
can be subjected to DNA testing. Samples such as feces
and vomit can be tested, but may not be routinely
accepted by laboratories for testing.
d. DNA Analysis
DNA analysis is similar to fingerprint analysis in how
matches are determined. Evidence collected from a
crime scene is compared to a known sample. If each
feature is not identical, the DNA evidence is determined
NOT to be a match and therefore did NOT come from the
suspect.
e. Where can DNA evidence be found at a crime scene?
DNA evidence can be collected from virtually anywhere.
DNA has helped solve many cases when imaginative
investigators collected evidence from non traditional
sources. One murder was solved when the suspect's
DNA,
taken from saliva in a dental impression mould,
matched the DNA swabbed from a bite mark on
the victim. A masked rapist was convicted of
forced oral copulation when his victim's DNA
matched DNA swabbed from the suspect's penis 6
hours after the offense. Numerous cases have
been solved by DNA analysis of saliva on cigarette
butts, postage stamps, and the area around the
mouth opening on skin masks. DNA analysis of a
single hair (without the root) found deep in the
victim's throat provided a critical piece of evidence
used in a capital murder conviction.
IMPORTANCE OF DNA EVIDENCE IN CRIME
INVESTIGATION
"DNA evidence “– constitutes the totality of the DNA
profiles, results and other genetic information directly
generated from DNA testing of biological samples.
a. DNA in Criminal Investigations
1. The same DNA is found in all cells of the body.
2. The same DNA profile is recovered, no matter what
the sample (cell) type.
3. Your DNA does not change through your life.
4. Any cellular material left at a crime scene may be a
useful source of DNA helix.
b. Applications of DNA Analysis
1. Criminal Investigations - matching suspect
with evidence.
2. Parentage Testing - identifying parent(s)
3. Historical investigations
4. Missing persons’ investigations
5. Mass disasters - positive identification of the
deceased
6. Military DNA “dog tag”
7. Convicted felon DNA databases
 c. Some Examples of DNA Uses for Forensic Identification
1. Identify potential suspects whose DNA may match
evidence left at crime scenes.
2. Exonerate persons wrongly accused of crimes.
3. Identify crime and catastrophe victims.
4. Establish paternity and other family relationships.
5. Identify endangered and protected species as an
aid to wildlife officials (could be used for prosecuting
poachers)
6. Detect bacteria and other organisms that may
pollute air, water, soil, and food.
7. Match organ donors with recipients in transplant programs.
8. Determine pedigree for seed or livestock breeds.
9. Authenticate consumables such as caviar and wine.

 2. SEARCH FOR DNA EVIDENCE

 
Items of physical evidence are not always visible to the
naked eye and may be easily overlooked. A methodical
approach to collection and preservation of evidence is
essential. One exception may be if evidence integrity is at
risk. Under those circumstances, it is important that rapid
decisions be made to prevent degradation or loss of
evidence.
An alternate light source or oblique lighting may be used to
identify some types of biological evidence. A sample
detected with the ALS should be properly collected and
packaged with a label noting that it is a biological sample.
 Based on these considerations, this method can be a
valuable tool. It is generally used only after exhausting
other options.
 3. DNA Evidence is Trace Evidence
  Trace evidence, such as hair, fibers and body fluids, are
types of physical evidence that is small & transient, but
measurable. When larger items of physical evidence are
subjected to closer examination in the laboratory, trace
evidence may be detected.
The importance of trace evidence can be critical to an
investigation. Awareness of this type of evidence
cannot be overemphasized. Photographing the area
where any evidence is collected not only provides
documentation of the collection but also assists in
locating trace evidence.
 Even if identification cannot be made in the
laboratory, the investigator and prosecutor may use
trace evidence as part of a convincing circumstantial
case. Skill and effort during collection, testing and
case preparation can help ensure a successful
presentation of trace evidence in the courtroom.
b. DNA Evidence is Transfer Evidence
 When DNA evidence is transferred by direct or
secondary (indirect) means, it remains on surfaces
by absorption or adherence. In general, liquid
biological evidence is absorbed into surfaces, and
solid biological evidence adheres to surfaces.
c. Evidence Search Methods
  The scene and conditions may determine the search
method to use. For example, the size of the crime
scene and the number of people available to
conduct the search may play a role in determining
the best method to use.
3. COLLECTION OF DNA EVIDENCE
 Collection and packaging methods differ
depending on the type of evidence and the
material upon which it is found. It is preferable
to collect evidence in its original state. If the
evidence is fragile or can easily be lost, the
entire object should be collected and
packaged when size and circumstances
permit. Contact a specialist if you are not
trained in the required procedure.
 a. Collection Priority
 Prioritize the order in which evidence will be collected
at the scene. Collect biological evidence, trace
materials and evidence of a fragile nature is first. The
second priority would be to collect swabs from
handled items that have been moved, are out of place
or do not belong to the resident. A third priority type
of evidence that may be at the scene includes the
potentially lower-quality biological evidence.
Circumstances & local agency procedures may dictate
priority process. Investigators should contact their
local laboratory for specific collection procedures.
 1. First Priority
Items that potentially contain sufficient amounts of
DNA to obtain a profile are the most important
evidence and the first priority to collect. However,
the collection or swabbing of certain items may
depend on whether or not residents are available to
ask if these items are theirs, or if residents had the
opportunity to talk to the responding investigator to
indicate which items do or do not belong to them.
Examples of these items are as follows:
a. Blood
b. Cigarette butts
c. Bottles, cans and drinking containers not used by the residents
(collect the item and submit it to the lab if no liquid remains in the
container or use one slightly moistened swab to sample around the
mouth opening).
d. Hairs found or caught in splintered wood or broken glass at the
point of entry.
e. Discarded latex gloves.
f. Clothing items, bandannas, masks or hats that do not belong to the
residents.
g. Sunglasses or eyeglasses left behind by the suspect (collect the
glasses and submit them to the lab or use one slightly moistened
swab to sample the parts that rest on the ear, the bridge of the
nose, and the bottoms of the frames that rest on the face
underneath the eyes). Toothpicks, chewed gum, sunflower seed
hulls, lollipop sticks
h. Cell phone left by the suspect (collect the item and submit
to the lab, or use one slightly moistened swab to sample
around the mouthpiece and a second slightly moistened
swab to sample around the earpiece).
i. Food items with bite marks — some food samples can
degrade quickly at room temperature; sample the area
around the bite mark with a slightly moistened swab at the
scene (collect the food item and store it frozen).
j. Evidence that might have semen on it (e.g., panties
removed from a bedroom drawer and found crumpled up in
another room).
 Note: One alternate swabbing technique is to use a slightly
moistened swab for collection, followed by a dry swab. Both
swabs should be marked and may be packaged together.  
2. Second Priority
The second priority would be to collect swabs from handled items that
have been moved, are out of place or do not belong to the resident.
Examples of these are as follows:
a. Pry bars.
b. Tools.
c. Jewelry boxes or watch cases not in their usual location, with the
contents missing or scattered (for jewelry boxes that have been
moved or the contents removed, use one slightly moistened swab
around the edges of the box that would have been touched or held
onto when opening it).
d. Cash boxes, cash register drawers.
e. Keys left behind by suspect.
f. Computer connectors or cables left behind if the monitor, printer or
the computer was stolen 
When sampling this type of evidence, collect as much
sample as possible from a single source on a single
swab. If the swab becomes very dirty or damaged in the
process, use a second swab. If residual moisture remains
on an item after using the first swab, use a second dry
swab. Concentrate the biological evidence from one
item on one swab, on the tip. Collect control samples
per agency guidelines.
3. Third Priority
  A third priority type of evidence that may be at the
crime scene includes the following
a. Smudged fingerprints (unsuitable for identification)
near point of entry.
b. Door knobs on doors leading to the exterior.
c. Latches or handles of gates left open.
An example is the handles of tools. Use one
slightly moistened swab to sample the handle
of the tool. If an item has two ends that could
have been handled, such as a tire iron or pry
bar, use one swab for each end. Keep the
biological evidence collected from one item
on one swab, preferably on the tip. Collect
control samples per agency guidelines.
4. HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DNA EVIDENCE
a. Do’s and Don’t’s in Handling and Preservation of
Biological Evidence for DNA Analysis
DO’s
a. Ensure that proper chain of custody is maintained
in the handling of physical evidence
b. Recovered pieces of evidence from the crime
scene must be properly preserved and documented.
They must be properly identified for purposes of
court presentation.
c. Have separate containers for different samples.
d. Place blood or liquid tissues in spill-proof
containers.
e. Immediate extraction of DNA samples from
the biological evidence is a must.
f. Materials in contact with the samples should
be sterile.
g. When collecting any type of body fluid or
tissue always wear gloves and additional
protective device when appropriate.
h. Blood samples must be refrigerated.
DON’T’S
a. DNA test is very sensitive and vulnerable to
contamination by other DNA sources. Avoid
contamination with other human DNA.
b. Do not handle samples with bare hands.
c. Avoid long-term storage of tissues.
d. No ice is required and dry ice should never be
used to cool the tube of blood.
e. Do not mouth pipette anybody fluid
regardless of the source.
f. Avoid drying of wet stained garments under directs
sunlight or exposing it to an electric fan.
g. Do not collect a wet garment or garment with a wet
bloodstain in a sealed air-tight container.
h. Do not use plastic bag in the collection of blood
specimen.
b. Packaging for Transport
Use plastic bags for the transportation of biological
evidence only when there are excessive body fluids
and possible contamination of people and other
evidence items. Use paper packaging if saturation is
not a possibility.
Never package wet or moist body fluids in plastic bags for
long periods of time. This promotes bacterial growth and
evidence contamination, which can lead to DNA
degradation.  
c. Transportation and Short-Term Storage
Before collecting any evidence at a crime scene, secure a
place for temporary storage. This will help to prevent any
degradation or contamination of biological evidence.
Direct sunlight and warmer conditions may cause DNA to
degrade more rapidly. Avoid storing evidence in places
that may get hot, such as the trunk of a police car. To
best preserve biological evidence. 
 d. Preserving Evidence
 From crime scene to forensic laboratory to courtroom, all
evidence must be identified, inventoried and secured to
preserve its integrity. It is important to demonstrate that
the evidence introduced at trial is the same evidence
collected at the crime scene and that access was
controlled and documented. An understanding of and
adherence to the rules governing chain of custody is vital
for an investigator to ensure evidence admissibility in
court.
 Effective evidence preservation includes appropriate
packaging with correct and consistent information on
labelling and procedural documentation for all items.
Biological evidence should be air-dried before
packaging to minimize degradation. Packaging
in paper is preferred; however, some
laboratories allow packaging in plastic if the
sample is thoroughly dried.
Liquid samples, such as water from a toilet bowl
or pipes, should be properly documented and
packaged in sterile glass or plastic containers
and refrigerated as soon as possible to avoid
contamination of evidence that may contain
DNA, always take the following precautions: 
a. Wear gloves. Change them often.
b. Use disposable instruments or clean them
thoroughly before and after handling each sample.
c. Avoid touching the area where you believe DNA may
exist.
d. Avoid talking, sneezing, and coughing over evidence.
e. Avoid touching your face, nose, and mouth when
collecting and packaging evidence.
f. Air-dry evidence thoroughly before packaging.
g. Put evidence into new paper bags or envelopes, not
into plastic bags. Do not use staples.
 e. Personal protection:
Biological materials can contain pathogens such
as Hepatitis, Syphilis, TB, Gonorrhea, Measles, HIV,
etc.
NOTE: Assume that all stains, wet or dry, are
infectious
f. Problems with DNA Evidence
Degradation – is the breaking down of DNA into
smaller fragments by chemical or physical processes.
Contamination – occurrence of having unwanted DNA
profile in the specimen. 
 g. Degradation
 a. DNA can be degraded.
b. Affected by certain conditions.
c. Normally inside a body or a living cell, conditions are perfectly
maintained to avoid DNA degradation.
d. When it leaves the body, these conditions are uncontrolled.
 h . Factors Affecting DNA Degradation
 a. Temperature – the higher the temperature, the faster the
degradation of DNA evidence proceeds.
b. pH – DNA can be degraded by alkalinity or acidity of the matrix.
c. Humidity
d. Exposure to sunlight
e. Exposure to chemicals
 i. Contamination
 a. Addition of different person’s physiological material after
crime during collection, during examination or anywhere in
between.
b. Maybe accidental or purposely.
c. Invalidates DNA evidence completely.
j. Contamination vs Degradation
 a. Degradation does not change the genotype of the
evidence while contamination does.
b. Contamination could produce false positive result while
degradation does not.
c. Both alter the TRUE result.
d. Both should be avoided.
k. Mixed Samples
 a. Not the same as contamination.
b. Mixed sample contains more than 1 person’s DNA.
c. Happened before or during the crime.
Examples:
Semen and vaginal epithelial cells in rape cases.
Married couple sharing house.
l. Avoiding Contamination
 a. Always wear clean gloves.
b. Change gloves between samples.
c. Use clean (sterilized) collection tools.
d. Proper labelling and packaging of evidence.
e. Slowing the degradation
f. Removing moisture.
g. Lowering temperature.
h. Avoid exposure to chemicals and direct sunlight.
  1. If items have been stored properly, DNA can last
decades (30+ years).
2. Exposed to harsh environment (eg: heat, sunlight,
moisture, mould), DNA may only last a few days or weeks.
3. In the laboratory: we can’t tell in advance whether or
not an item will yield any DNA.
 DNA can be present, but too degraded to give a result
(partial DNA profile).
 6. Documentation and labelling
 a. Documents Needed:
1. Letter Request – An ideal letter request contains all
•
information as to:
 

– Brief summary of the case

– Source of the specimen
– Markings of the specimen
– The way the evidence is packed.
•  

2. Chain of Custody Form – May contained in the

•
packaging of the evidence.
 

3. Court Order – For cases already in court.

•  
 b. Chain of Custody – Record of individuals who
have had physical possession of the evidence.
•
  NOTE: Integrity of chain of custody
“The fewer people handling the evidence, the
lesser the chance of contamination and a
shorter chain of custody for court
admissibility.” 
c. Seal – To maintain integrity of the specimen;
to further prove that no tampering took
placed.
 d. Markings - These are information to ensure that the items
can be identified by the collector at any time in the future.
This precaution will help immeasurably to establish the
credibility of the collector’s report or testimony and will
effectively avoid any suggestions that the item has been
misidentified.
Markings on the specimen must at least contain the
•
following:
 

a. Exhibits and/or SOCO Case # (for SOCO personnel)

b. Initials and/ or signature of the collecting officer.
c. Time and date of collection.
d. It is also important to note the place or location where
the evidence was collected.
Hairs
Hair is a filamentous outgrowth of dead cells
from the skin found only on mammals.
 Purposes of examination: 
• To determine whether the hair in questioned
originated from an animal or human being and
the comparison of questioned and known
hairs.
• To ascertain whether two or more individuals could
have come into contact or whether one or more
individuals could have come into contact with an
object.
The examination of this associative evidence is useful
in the crimes of violence, such as homicide, sexual
assault, and aggravated assault, where physical
contact may have occurred. Crimes such as burglary
and armed robbery typically involve the recovery of
debris and articles of clothing which may contain
hairs useful for identification of suspects.
Hair is one of the most common type of trace
evidence found at the crime scene. Hair transfer
may occur during physical contact of the suspect
and the victim. Hair may fall out under condition
that suspect is unaware of & unable to guard
against it.
 Value of Hair as Evidence
The value of hair as evidence in the criminal cases
has been clearly recognized. It is seldom conclusive
as evidence, but in conjunction with other details,
has proven to be an important and essential aid to
the investigator.
Facts about Hair
a. Each individual hair is formed inside a hair bulb
deep in a hair follicle.
b. The follicle is a tiny but powerful factory which
throughout many people’s lifetime continues to
produce hair.
c. The primary component of hair is keratin.
d. Keratins are proteins, long chains (polymers) of
amino acids.
 e. The average human head has about 100,000 hair
follicles. Some people have as many as 150,000.
f. Each follicle can grow about 20 individual hairs in a
person’s lifetime.
g. Each new hair grows for several years & can reach over
a meter in length.
h. Average hair loss is about 100 strands a day.
i. As anytime around 80-90% of most people’s hair follicles
are in the anagen or growing phase, 2% are in the
catagen phase or the transition period between the
anagen and the telogen phase or resting phase which
are about 10- 18%, where hair are routinely lost.
j. Next to teeth and bones, it is also one of the most
decay-resistant human elements.
Hair Structure
3 Parts of Hair
 Root bulb- the shape of the root bulb will determine
if the hair was pulled by force or not. Porti Cuticle –
is the outer surface of the hair and when viewed
under a microscope appears to be composed of
scale like flakes, each overlapping the others like the
scale of a fish.
Medulla or Core – is the central canal of the hair shaft.
It could be continuous, fragmented, interrupted or
absent and begins more or less with the root.
• Cortex – the intermediate and the thickest
layer of the shaft and is composed of
elongated, spindle shaped fibrils which cohere
and contains the colour pigmentation of the
hair embedded in the skin
• Hair shaft – contains the most information
about the hair and portion above the surface
of the skin. It is the most distinctive part of the
hair.
• Tip – will show if the hair is cut, burned or if it
has split ends.