FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

"If The law has made you a witness, remain a man of Science. You have no victim to avenge,
no guilty or innocent person to ruin or save. You must bear witness within the limits of Science."

CHAPTER 1.
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
-Is defined as that branch of Chemistry which deals with the application of chemical principles in
the solution of crimes.

-It plays a very important part in the speedy investigation and in the administration of justice. It is
well-settled that this Science has an advantage over extracted confessions, eyewitnesses and
other circumstantial evidence. thus, this is regarded as the highest form of uncontestable and
conclusive piece of evidence
with the outmost legal significance.

-Is the Science that deals with the study and application of chemical principles in the solution of
problem that arises in connection with the administration of justice.

FORENSIC SCIENCE
-deals with application of Chemistry in the identification of evidence, its physical and chemical
properties. It is also includes the collection, preservation, examination and study of blood,
semen, and other body fluids; examination of dangerous drugs; examination of body fluid to
determine the presence of dangerous drugs; alcohol (liquor) test; examination of fake products
for unfair trade competition; arson investigation; macro-etching examination; bullet trajectory
ultraviolet examination; tools and other marks; gunshot residues (gunpowder nitrated, paraffin
test; distance determination; and firearm examination); and principles and examination of
explosives; hair and textiles fibers; chemical aspects of documents and examination; problems
on glass fragments and glass fracture, moulage metallurgy and Petrography as applied to crime
investigation. Forensic chemistry also includes the study and examination of Deoxyribonucleic
acid or DNA for brevity.

FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY
- Deals with the examination of human internal organs, food samples and water and gastric
contents for the purpose of detecting the presence of poisonous substance, its dosage,
effects and treatment.

PRACTICE OF FORENSIc CHEMISTRY

The work of a Forensic Chemist is divided into four stages, namely:
1. Collection or reception of specimen
2. The actual examination
3. The communication of the results of the examination
4. Court appearance
Collection of the specimen to be examined
The proper collection, preservation and transportation of specimens are essential in the
investigation of a crime. Hence, whenever possible, the chemist should personally collect all
the specimens necessary for the examination. This particular stage of a Forensic Chemist's
work is essential as questions regarding the collection, preservation and transportation of the
specimen raised during the trial.

Factors that must be considered when collecting specimen for examination:

a. Sufficiency of Samples
As much as possible, the investigator should collect sufficient amount of specimen for
examination.

b. Standard for comparison

When the evidence in question is located in or added with the foreign substance, a sample of
such foreign substances must be submitted for analysis. For instance, if blood is found on
linoleum, a sample of the unstained linoleum must be submitted together with the stained
portion.

c. Maintenance of Individuality
Each piece of evidence must be collected and preserved as a separate sample.

D. Labelling and Sealing

It is well-settled rule that evidence will have no value in court in spite of the good report of the
expert if the specimen cannot be identified by reason of improper labelling. Hence, each sample
must be labelled properly.

Actual examination of the Specimen

The first step in the examination of an article is to scrutinize it carefully and write down in the
laboratory logbook/ record book a complete description of the external appearance including the
manner in which it is secured and the particulars of the sealing. If possible take a photograph of
the specimen including the inner
wrappings and take note of its descriptions. 

The second step in the examination is to measure or weigh the object and all measurements
and weights should be entered in the laboratory log book/ record book. 

The third step in the laboratory examination consists of the chemical, physical, and
confirmatory tests.

Communication of the results of the examination

The results of the examination conducted should be communicated with the requesting party in
the form of a written report which must include an enumeration of facts on the specimen receive
for examination with detailed description of the packaging, sealing and labelling, date of receipt
and from whom it was received, the purpose of the examination, the findings and conclusion.

Court Appearance
The written report of the Forensic Chemist is usually supplemented by testimonial evidence at a
later date if the case is brought to court or the fiscals' office. Since the testimonial evidence may
be given weeks, months or even years after the examination and the written report have been
made, it is not only permissible but indispensable that the chemist should refresh his memory by
referring to his laboratory record book before presenting himself in court.

Role of Forensic Chemist in the Scientific

Investigation

A Forensic Chemist, as a man of science, performs laboratory examination on physical

evidence submitted to the crime laboratory in order to expedite the investigation of a crime by
the investigating party. He /she has the following responsibilities:

1. Conducts qualitative and quantitative determination of abused drugs as well as volatile

substances.

2. Conducts chemical examination of explosives and/or explosive ingredients.

3. Conducts examination of paraffin cast and firearms to determine the presence of gunpowder
nitrates.

4. Conducts gunpowder examination on clothing for possible gunshot range

5. Conducts chemico-toxicological examination of human internal organs, gastric contents,

blood, water, food sample and other substances.

6. Conducts examination of fake products in cases of unfair trade competition.

7. Conducts blood alcohol determinations.

8. Examines urine samples and other body fluids for the presence of abused drugs.

9. Conducts researches related to cases being examined.

10. Testifies and gives expert opinion in court.

11. Gives lectures on Forensic Chemistry and Chemical-toxicology to various schools,

universities, police training centers and investigating units.

12. Responds to queries of all investigating units and render expert opinion on matters related
to the application of chemical principles for the purpose of assisting investigators to develop
investigative leads.

Six Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic

Chemistry
1. Go Slowly
2. Be thorough
3. Take Notes
4. Consult others
5. Use imagination
6. Avoid complicated theories
Equipments used in the Forensic Examination
The following are some of the most common laboratory equipments used in forensic
examination:

1. HPLC (High Powered Liquid Chromatography)

-This scientific equipment is used for the qualitative and quantitative determination of a volatile
or non-volatile compound based on the chromatographic separation of its components.

2. Ultra-Violet spectrophotometer
-It is used for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic compounds.

3. EMIT (Enzyme Multiple Immuno Assay Technique)

-It is used for screening of abused urine samples.

4. SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope)

-This scientific equipment is used for the physical identification of various questioned
specimens. It is a software-controlled digital scanning electron microscope used to produce
sticking images over a wide range of magnification (3x3,000, 000x) on rough or covered surface
of minute specimen such as hair, fibers, paint particles, drugs, metals, etc.

5. FTIR (Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy)

-Used for the identification of pure organic substances. It identifies organic substances
particularly abused drugs and explosive ingredients based on their characteristic functional
groups.

PRESERVATION AND SAFEKEEPING OF EVIDENCE

CHAPTER 2.

The following are the guidelines in the proper preservation and safekeeping of evidence.

1. Proper chain of custody shall be observed.

2. All examined pieces of evidence (such as drugs and other paraphernalia, explosives,
firearms, and all other Chemistry-related evidence) shall be personally turned over by the
examiner on case to the evidence custodian. The latter, in turn, shall execute its documentation
by recording all received as well as released evidence for court presentation. No examiners
shall keep in their possession evidence once examined.

3. Evidence shall be properly placed in suitable dry containers for proper preservation and shall
be placed inside the concrete evidence room.

Firearms evidence shall be kept in a separate evidence room especially designed for the
purpose. However, hazardous evidence such as explosives and other inflammable evidence are
photographed after examination with its corresponding case number before turning it over to
Explosive Ordinance Disposal Unit (EODU) with proper receipt for safekeeping or proper
disposal

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC CRIME LABORATORY IN THE PHILIPPINES

CHAPTER 3.

•1858-The first Medical Textbook printed including pertinent instruction relating to medical legal
practice by Spanish physician Dr. Rafael Genard y Mas, the title of the book is " Manual de
Medecina Domestica"

•1871- Teaching of Forensic Medicine

•March 31, 1876- Creation of " Medicos Titulares" by virtue of Royal Decree No. 188 of Spain.

•December 15, 1884- Governor General Joaquin Javellar created a committee to study the
mineral waters of Luzon and appointed Anacleto del Rosario as chemist.

•September 13, 1887- Establishment of "Laboratorio Municipal de Manila" under the inspection
of the " Direccion General de Administracion Civil" and the control of the "Gobierno de
Provincias”

•1894-" Laboratorio Medico-Legal" was created under the dependency of the judicial branch of
the government and the laboratory functioning under the direction of a physician and assisted
by a pharmacist-chemist.

•1895- Antonio Luna established a clinical laboratory where some original works in chemistry
were done.

•1899- The first scientific laboratory was established in a small building on the banks of Pasig
River with Lt R. P. Strong of the US Army in charge.

•1901- Actual scientific work began under the initiative of Dean C. Worcerter by virtue of Act
No. 156 approved by the Civil Commission.

•July 01, 1901- The Bureau of Government Laboratories was created for the purpose of
performing biological and chemical examinations as well as for the production of vaccines and
sera.

•March 11, 1915- The Department of Legal Medicine was created pursuant to the resolution of
the Board of legal medicines and its branches in the College of Medicine and Law.

•October 14, 1924- Through the passage of Act No. 3043 by the Philippine Legislature, the
same Department of Legal Medicine became a branch of the Department of Justice and at the
same time an integral part of the University of the Philippines.
•December 01, 1937- The "Division of Investigation" was created under Commonwealth
Act No. 181 with two medico-legal officers and a chemist. The Medico-Legal Section of the
Division of Investigation started the definite movements towards the creation of scientific
crime detection laboratory.

•September 1945- The National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) was organized with the
Division of the Medico-Legal Section was expanded into a Forensic Chemistry Division.

At present there are two (2) distinct laboratories in the Philippines performing forensic
chemical analyses namely:

1. Philippine National Police Crime Laboratory

2. Forensic Chemistry Division of the National Bureau of Investigation

SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
CHAPTER 4.

Evidence
-Is a proof of allegation, it is a means sanctioned by law of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding
the truth respecting a matter of fact.

Corollary thereto, scientific evidence may be defined as the means sanctioned by law, of
ascertaining in a judicial proceedings the truth respecting a matter of fact wherein scientific
knowledge is necessary. Such scientific evidence must have such a relation to the fact in issue
as to induce belief in its existence or non existence.

Evidence in collateral matters shall not be allowed except when it tends in any reasonable
degree to establish the probability or improbability of the fact in issue.

Evidence may be (a) direct; (b) indirect which includes circumstantial evidence; and (c)
hearsay.

(a) Direct Evidence 

-is that which the senses perceive. Any fact to which a witness testifies based on what he saw,
heard, smelled, touched or tasted, is direct

(b) Circumstantial Evidence 

-is a kind of evidence which seeks to establish a conclusion by inferences from the facts proven.

c) Hearsay Evidence 
-is a statement made by a witness on the authority of another and not from his own personal
knowledge or observation. Hearsay evidence is inadmissible except on the following:

1.dying declaration
2. res gestae
3. declaration against interest
4. actor declaration about pedigree
5. family reputation or tradition regarding pedigree
6. common reputation
7. part of res gestae
8. entries in the course of business
9. entries in official records
10. learned treatises, and
11. testimony or deposition at a former proceeding

Forms of Scientific Evidence

(a) Real or Autoptic evidence 
-is that evidence which is addressed to the senses of the court It is not limited to that which can
be known by the sense of vision but extends to those which are perceived by the senses of
hearing, taste, smell or touch.

(b) Testimonial Evidence 

-an expert may be called on the witness stand to answer all questions propounded by both
parties in the case.

c)Documentary Evidence 
-any written evidence presented by an expert in court which is relevant to the subject matter in
dispute and not excluded by the Rules of Court. Formal written report, expert opinion,
certificates and dispositions are included in this group.

WITNESS
CHAPTER5.

Witness defined.
A witness is compellable if he or she may lawfully be required to give evidence. Most
witnesses who are competent can be compelled to give evidence.

A witness in court may be an ordinary or expert witness.

Under the law, an ordinary witness must have the following qualifications:
1. he must have the organ and power to perceive.
2. perceiving can make known his perception to others.
3. he does not fall in any of the exception provided for by law, 123 Rules of Court

The opinion of witness regarding a question of science, art or trade, where he is skilled
therein, may be received in evidence.

This kind of evidence is called the testimony of an expert witness.

Distinctions between an Ordinary and an Expert Witness

ORDINARY WITNESS
1. Can only state what his senses have perceived
2. May not be skilled on the line he is testifying.
3. Cannot testify on things or fact he has not perceived except those provided for by law.

EXPERT WITNESS
1. State what he has perceived and also give his opinion, deductions or conclusions to his
perception.
2. Must be skilled in the art, science or trade he is testifying.
3. Testify on things which he has not seen by giving his opinions, deductions or conclusions on
the statements of facts.

Probative Value of Expert Testimony

Whether courts are or are not bound by the testimony of an expert depends upon the nature of
the subject of inquiry. It the subject of inquiry comes with in the general knowledge of the judge;
the latter will not be bound by the conclusion of the expert. For instance, when the subject of
inquiry is genuineness of a handwriting as compared to a standard.

However, when the subject of inquiry is of such a nature that a layman can have no knowledge
thereof, as for instance, the determination of parentage through DNA (Deoxyribonu cleic acid)
test, the court must depend on the result of the examination of an expert.

Qualifications of an Expert Witness

(a) the degree of leaming of the witness
b) the basis and logic of his conclusion; and
c) the other proof of case

CHAPTER 6: DRUGS
Define Drugs;
Drug is a chemical substance that brings about physical, physiological, behavioral and/or psychological
change in a person taking it.
All medicines are drugs, but not all drugs are medicine drug.

Medical drugs
A substance which when taken into the human body cures illness and/or relieves signs/ symptoms of
disease.

Dangerous Drugs
A substance affecting the central nervous system which when taken into the human body brings about
physical, emotional or behavioral changes in a person taking it.

Drug Abuse
Any non-medical use of drugs that cause physical, psychological, legal, economic, or social damage to
the user or to people affected by the user’s behavior.
Abuse usually refers to illegal drugs but may also be applicable to drugs that are available legally, such as
prescribed medications and certain over-the-counter medications.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
According to origin:

a. Natural Drugs
- are active ingredients, secondary metabolic products of plants and other living systems that
may be isolated by extraction.
 Examples: Raw opium, Marijuana, Coca bush

b. Synthetic Drugs

-are artificially produced substances, synthesized in the laboratory for the illicit chemical
compounds in illicit laboratories.
Examples: Methamphetamine, Barbiturates

According to Legal classification:

a. RA 9165 (Comprehensive Dangerous Drug Act of2002)
b. PD 1619 (Volatile Substances)
c. RA 6425 (Classified as: Regulated and Prohibited)

Under RA 9165, otherwise known as the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, the term
prohibited and regulated was changed into dangerous drug with the following classification:

1. Immediate precursors - a chemical substance used in the clandestine manufacturing process

becomes incorporated in full or in part into the final molecules of a substance under international
control.
2. Essential chemicals - chemical substance used as reagent or solvent in the illegal manufacture
of controlled substances.
3. Narcotic, psychotropic and designer

According to International Classification:

a. Narcotics substance
b. Psychotropic substances
c. Designer drugs
According to Pharmacological Classification (Effects):
a. Stimulants
b. Hallucinogens
c. Depressants
d. Inhalants

STIMULANTS - are drugs which increase alertness of physical disposition

Example: Amphetamine
Street Name: Eye opener, lid poppers, pep pills, uppers, hearts
What it is: Reduces appetite
Relieves mental depression
Comfort fatigue and sleepiness
How Taken: Orally as tablet or capsule
Effects
General: wakefulness, increased alertness/initiative
Toxic: from restlessness to coma and death
Dangers: Dependence, overdose, violent/bizarre behavior

Example: Shabu (Methamphetamine Hydrochloride)

Street Name: Poor man's cocaine, S, shabs, ubas, Siopao, sha, ice
What it is: White odorless crystal/crystalline powder with a bitter numbing taste
How Taken: Ingestion, inhalation (chasing the dragon), sniffing, injection, smoked
Effects
General: anxiety, irritability, irrational behavior
Long Term: psychosis similar to schizophrenia, difficulty in concentrating, loss of interest in sex
Physical: chest pain, irregular heartbeat, hypertension, convulsion, death
Dangers: Injection from contaminated needles may lead to risk of infections, phlebitis,
septicemia, AlDS, etc.

HALLUCINOGENS - are drugs which affect sensation, thinking, self-awareness and emotion.
Changes in time and space perception, delusions (false beliefs) and hallucinations may be mild or
overwhelming, depending on dose and quality of drugs.
Example: Ecstasy
Street Name: XTC, Adam, essence, E, Herbals
How Taken: Swallowing or inhalation
Effects: Exaggerated emotions, makes HR and BP hike up, dries the mouth, stiffens arms, legs,
jaw; dilates pupils of the eyes, causes faintness, chills sweating and nausea.
Dangers: It can really kill

Example: LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)

Street Name: Lucy in the sky with diamonds, wedding bells, acid, white sugar, lightning, cubes,
brain eaters
What it is: A semi-synthetic alkaloid substance extracted from a fungus which grows on rye,
wheat, and other grains; odorless, tasteless, colorless
Effects
Psychological: vivid hallucinations, confusion, blurring and distinction between conscious and
unconscious thought, etc.
Physical: dilated pupils, flushed face, increased BP, etc.
Dangers: May cause abnormal amount of breakage of chromosomes of WBCs that carry genes,
which may result to miscarriages and birth defects.

Example: Marijuana
Street Name: Mary Jane, Flower, pampapogi, brownies, damo, pot, tea, joint, Dope
What it is: Comes from Cannabis Sativa (Indian hemp); looks like fine green tobacco
How Taken: Smoked in pipes/cigarettes; can be taken in food; made into candy, sniffed in powder
form, mixed with honey or butter
Effects
Immediate: faster heartbeat, bloodshot eyes, dry mouth
Long Term: chest pain, temporary loss of fertility, cancer, marijuana burn-out.
Dangers: Slows down user's mental and psychomotor activities; long-term use may lead
psychological dependence, may lead to cancer.

DEPRESSANTS - are drugs which depress or lower the functions of the Central Nervous System

Types of Depressants:
Narcotics - a drug which induces sleep (Hypnotics) or stupor and relieve pain (Analgesics)
Something that soothes, or causes a sensation of mental numbness
This includes Opium, Opiates, Heroin, Morphine, and Codeine
Tranquilizers - a substance that reduces anxiety, ease tension and relax muscles.

Sedatives and Hypnotics - calm the nerves, reduce tension and induce sleep.
Example: Barbiturates, alcohol

INHALANTS - these are any liquid, solid or mixed substance that has the property of releasing toxic
(psychoactive) vapors or fumes.
Example: solvent, glue, gasoline, kerosene, paint, thinner, naphthalene.

What are considered Dangerous Drugs?

Dangerous Drug is a substance affecting the central nervous system which when taken into the human
body brings about physical, emotional or behavioral changes in a person taking it.
It is a substance which when taken into the human body alters mood, perception, feelings and
behavior.
Under Republic Act 6425, otherwise known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972, dangerous
drugs are classified into three (3) main categories, namely:

A. Prohibited Drugs
B. Regulated Drugs
C. Volatile Substances

A. Prohibited Drug, which includes opium and its active components and derivatives, such as
heroin and morphine; coca leaf and its derivatives, principally cocaine; alpha and beta eucaine;
hallucinogenic drugs, such as mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and other substances
producing similar effects; Indian hemp and its derivatives; all preparations made from any of the
foregoing; and other drugs and chemical preparations, whether natural or synthetic, with the
physiological effects of narcotic or a hallucinogenic drug (As amended by B.P.179 dated March 2,
1982).

B. Regulated Drug, which includes self-inducing sedatives, such as secobarbital, Phenobarbital,

pentobarbital, barbital, amobarbital and any other drug which contains a salt or a derivative of a
salt of barbituric acid; any salt, isomer or salt of an isomer, of amphetamine, such as Benzedrine
or Dexedrine, or any drug which produces a physiological action similar to amphetamine; and
 hypnotic drugs, such as methaqualone, nitrazepam or any other compound producing similar
physiological effects (As amended by PD No. 1683 dated March 14, 1980).

C. Volatile Substance, Liquid, solid or mixed substances having the property of releasing toxic
vapors or fumes or any chemical substance which when sniffed, smelled, inhaled or introduced
into the physiological system of the body produce/ induce a condition of intoxication,
inebriation, excitement, stupefaction, etc.

Republic Act 9165, otherwise known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, gives a single definition
for prohibited and regulated drugs. The old law defines the term "dangerous drugs" as pertaining
to either "prohibited drug" or "regulated drug".

"Drug Dependence” - means a state of psychic or physical dependence, or both, on a dangerous

drug, arising in a person following administration or use of that drug on a periodic or continuous
basis.

Characteristics of Drug Dependency

1. Physical dependence - the body's physical system changes until the body needs that particular
drug in order to function.
2. Mental or psychological dependence -a need of drug in order to feel good, to get by or feel
normal.
3. Idiosyncrasy or side effect.

"Use" - refers to the act of injecting, intravenously or intramuscularly, or of consuming, either by

chewing, smoking, sniffing, eating, swallowing, drinking, or otherwise introducing into the
physiological system of the body, any of the dangerous drugs.

"Sell" - means the act of giving a dangerous drug, whether for money or any other material
consideration.

CHAPTER 7: EXAMINATION OF DANGEROUS DRUGS

Drug Identification
branch of Forensic Chemistry that deals with the scientific examination of drugs and volatile
substances.
Drug identification is usually conducted by a forensic chemist/chemical officer to determine the
presence of dangerous drug on submitted specimens. The Forensic Chemist/chemical officer
also conducts drug test on body fluids of suspected drug pushers and users to determine the
presence of dangerous drug metabolites.
Paraphernalia like smoking pipes, tooters and aluminum foils should also be submitted
for examination to determine the presence of dangerous drugs.
Forms of Dangerous Drugs
Drugs are in various forms. This includes tablets, capsules, liquid, powder, brick or decks of
marijuana, crushed leaves and uprooted plants.
 A. Examination of the sample taken from the alleged confiscated Dangerous Drugs

Methods of Examination
1. Qualitative examination
2. Quantitative examination

Steps common to qualitative and quantitative methods:

1. Selection of method to be used
2. Physical test
3. Sampling
4. Sample preparation
5. Chemical test
6. Confirmatory examination
7. Calculation and interpretation of dates
8. Drawing of conclusion and writing report

TWO PHASES IN THE EXAMINATION OF THE ALLEGED CONFISCATED DANGEROUS DRUGS

1. Screening test/Preliminary test (also known as the color test)

This test is nonspecific and preliminary in nature. It is employed to reduce the family or
group of drugs to a small and manageable number.
Screening test includes a series of color tests producing characteristic colors for each
family or group of drugs. This is done by adding specific reagent to unknown sample in a spot
plate.
Screening test is quite simple to perform even by investigators in the field. As a matter
of fact, field tests using these techniques are being taught in Narcotics Investigation Courses.
Test reagents and basic are commercially available.
For example, the color test for cocaine is Cobalt Thiocyanate; addition of cocaine will produce a
rapid blue color change. Another example of a color spot test is the Marquis test, which will
produce a purple color with the addition of certain drugs such as Heroin.

Note:
It must be noted that Positive results of these tests are not conclusive, as there are
substances that may give same positive color reaction/s upon addition of the specific reagents.
Hence, confirmatory tests must be performed by the Forensic Chemist/ Chemical officer on
case to establish the presence and identification of dangerous drug. It must also be noted that
only those specimens that yielded presumptive positive results are subject to confirmatory test
to confirm if the positive result of the screening test is really positive.
1. Confirmatory Test

Confirmatory test is the method employed to confirm the results of the

screening/preliminary test. This test involves the application of an analytical
procedure to identify the presence of a specific drug or metabolites. This is
 independent of the screening test and which uses techniques and chemical
principles different from that of the initial test in order to ensure reliability and
accuracy.

There are several methods used in the Confirmatory test. Some of these methods
are:

Chromatography - is the process of separating mixture and comparing the migration

of each component with standard.
Some chromatographic techniques include:
Gas Chromatography
Thin Layer Chromatography
High Performance Liquid Chromatography
Spectroscopy - a confirmatory method whereby light is used to identify the sample specimen.
Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) – Used for the identification of pure organic
substances. Identifies organic substances particularly dangerous drugs and explosive
ingredients based on their characteristic functional groups.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy - Used for screening of dangerous drugs in urine specimen.

Examination of the Urine Specimen

The rate of excretion from the body depends on the drug's solubility in fat. Water
soluble drugs (drugs that dissolve in water) are excreted quickly, while fat soluble drugs (drugs
that dissolve in fat; tend to concentrate in fatty tissues) may take several weeks or months
before excretion.
Drug test must be conducted to apprehended individual/s who is/are suspected to be a
user/s; and to those who are charged with the offense of "Illegal Use of Dangerous Drugs".

Validity Test for Urine Specimen – Validity test is conducted to determine the integrity of the
samples.
Reasons for Conducting Validity Tests
 In cases of unobserved urine collection
 When there is suspicion that the urine specimen has been tampered

Instances when to allow Unobserved Urine Specimen Collection

o When donor is physically unable to go to the laboratory
o When donor is involved in a crime scene
o When donor is involved in post-accident trauma
o When donor is critically ill

Different Types of Tampered Urine Specimen

 a. Adulterated - a specimen containing either a substance that is not a normal constituent
for that type of specimen or containing an endogenous substance at a concentration
that is not normal physiological concentration.
b. Substituted - a specimen which has been derived through switching or replacement of
the original sample.
c. Diluted - refers to a specimen with less than normal physiological constituents.

Ways to Adulterate Urine Samples

 Addition of salt
 Addition of juice
 Addition of detergent
 Addition of bleach and other oxidizing adulterants
 Addition of illicit drugs

Ways to Substitute a Urine Sample

 Urine from friends or other persons not using drugs may be used as substitute
specimen
 Replace sample with other substance similar to urine in appearance.

Ways to Dilute a Urine Specimen

a. Internal Dilution
(e.g. Intake of plenty of water before collection or drinking of herbal tea, etc.)
b. External Dilution
(e.g. Addition of water to previously collected urine)

When do we consider a Urine specimen as Invalid?

A urine specimen is considered invalid under the following circumstance:
 Adulterated, substituted, or diluted
 Improperly collected, handled, and stored
 Improperly documented

VIII. GUNSHOT RESIDUE

Basically, gunshot residue comes from the powder component of bullet, elements from
cartridge cases and gun barrel where the bullet passes. When these components are burned,
certain products of combustion are formed which includes partially burned and unburned
particles. These particles are deposited on the target as definite pattern depending upon the
distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target at the time of discharge.
Upon discharge of firearm, gunpowder residues(nitrates) may be deposited on a person
at close proximity, so the interpretations as to who discharged the firearm should be made with
caution. (Thorton, 1986) Hand or body part close to the fired weapon may have gunpowder
residues consistent with having discharged the weapon. However, absence of gunpowder
residues on the person's hands or body parts does not mean that he/she did not discharge a
firearm.
Gunpowder residue may be found on the skin or clothing of the person who discharged
the gun, on the entrance bullet hole of garment or wound of the victim, or on other target
materials at the scene.

Components of gunshot residue

1. Primer or lead residue
2. Gunpowder residue
3. Elemental component from cartridge cases residues

Composition of Primer
Primer elements may be easier to detect in residues because they do not get as hot as
that of powder. (Tassa et al, 1982b).
1. Major primer elemental composition: lead (Pb), barium (Ba), or Antimony (Sb).
2. Trace element: aluminum (Al), sulfur (S), tin (Sn), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), chlorine (Cl)
or silicon(Si)
3. Inorganic Compound: mercury fulminates (present in most ammunition manufactured in
Eastern Europe and used in Middle East)
In addition, these residues gradually adhere to the discharged bullets. Thus, primer
residue can be found in targets or wounds at considerable distance from the muzzle up to 200
meters.

Composition of gunpowder
1. Contains up to 23 organic compounds (FBI study)
2. Nitrocellulose is virtually always present along with nitrate and nitrogen containing compound
such as Diphenylamine or DPA (stabilizer in the powder).

Types of gunpowder
1. Single-based – when the basic ingredient is nitrocellulose
2. Double-based – nitrocellulose + 1 to 40% nitroglycerine
3. Triple-based – nitrocellulose + nitroglycerine + nitroguanidine.
These can be differentiated using a mass spectrophotometer.
Composition of cartridge case, bullet coating and metal jacket.
1. Cartridge and primer cases; BRASS (7:3 COPPER-ZINC)
2. Bullet cores: lead, antimony and few iron alloy
3. Bullet jackets: brass (9:1 copper-zinc), some are iron or aluminum alloy. Some contain nickel.

GUNSHOT RESIDUE EXAMINATIONS

Purpose:
Gunshot residue examinations are performed to help the investigators in determining
whether a person has discharged a firearm or not; whether a firearm was discharged or not, and
the possible gunshot range or the distance of the shooter to the victim. Both hands of the
suspect as well as those of the victim, the firearms and clothing of the victim must be examined
to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates.

Types of Powder used in the ammunition of small firearms

There are two types of powder used in the ammunition of small firearms. These are:
1. Black Powder - this consists of a mixture of carbon (Charcoal), sulfur and potassium nitrate.
This mixture is used as an igniter in smokeless gun propellant. It consists of a mixture of 15%
Charcoal, 10% Sulfur and 75% Potassium nitrates. Aluminum is added to enhance the burning
property. When this powder is burned, combustion reaction takes place:
2KNO3 + 2o2 + S + C CO2 + SO2 + k2O2 + 2NO2
2. Smokeless Powder - This mixture consists of Cellulose or glycerol nitrate combined with
some stabilizers (nitrobenzene or graphite nitrates, dichromate and oxalates). When the powder
explodes, the chemical reaction takes place.

Primers
To explode a low explosive, flame is required. In guns, the flame is applied by means of
a primer. Primer produces flame on percussion. A typical primer consists of a case containing
an initiating explosive such as mercury fulminate, an oxidizing agent such as potassium chlorate
or barium nitrate, and a fuel such as antimony sulfide. This component is the basis for
examination of gunshot residue particularly primer residues for distance determination.

DETECTION OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE

The following are common methods used by most crime laboratories to detect gunshot
residue:
1. Paraffin test
2. Lead residue (detection limit: up to 30 feet and always present on the opposite sides of the
penetrated
target). Reported from intermediate glass target present (Messler and Armstrong, 1978).
3. Gunpowder residue examination (detection limit: highly variable up to 20 cm, and up to 21
inches is common).
4. Other examinations
The last two methods are classical. Color development or modern methods such as
Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA), atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), Scanning
Electron microscopy with energy dispersive analysis (SEM-EDA) and inductively coupled
plasma with mass spectrophotometry (ICP-MS) are used.

History of Paraffin test/dermal nitrate or Diphenylamine test

Paraffin test was originated from Cuba when Dr. Gonzalo Iturrios first used paraffin for
collecting gunpowder residues from discharged firearm. In 1933, Teodoro Gonzales of Criminal
Identification Laboratory, Mexico City introduced the test in the United States. In this test, the
hands were coated with a layer of melted paraffin. After cooling, the casts were removed and
treated with Diphenylamine (5% DPA in 60% sulfuric).

Methods of Examination
Paraffin Test
To determine whether a person has discharged a firearm, the Paraffin-Diphenylamine
test is used. The basis of this test is the presence of nitrates in the gunpowder residue. When a
warm melted paraffin wax is applied on the hands of the alleged shooter, it will cause the pores
of the skin to open and exude the particles of gunpowder residue. These particles of gunpowder
residue are being extracted by the paraffin cast (with the use of melted paraffin wax) and will
appear as blue specks, when diphenylamine reagent (DPA for brevity) is added on the cast. It
must be noted that the specks are generally located on the area of the thumb and forefingers.
Note:
The blue color that appears indicates the reaction of nitrates with diphenylamine
reagent. Thus, nitrate from other sources like fertilizers will give the same reaction. Other
substances similar to nitrate known as oxidizers will also react with the reagent in the same
way.
However, it must also be noted that the blue specks have the characteristic of “tailing”.
What is the Principle behind the Paraffin test?
While the burned and partially burned particles (gunpowder residue) is deposited on the
target and in the barrel of the gun, some of these burned and partially burned particles may
escape around the breech of the gun barrel of the gun and some may be embedded on the
exposed surface of the hand/s of the person discharging the firearm.
Thus, the presence of these residues can be detected by way of paraffin examination.
As a rule, in the paraffin examination, the Forensic Chemist/Chemical officer should
personally conduct the paraffin casting on the alleged shooter. However, a competent laboratory
technician under the supervision of the examiner-on-case may also perform the paraffin casting.
But it is the Forensic Chemist/Chemical officer who should examine the paraffin casts taken
from both hands of the alleged shooter to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates.
Paraffin casting of the alleged shooter shall only be done within seventy-two (72) hours
from the time of the alleged shooting incident. No person shall be subjected to paraffin casting
after the lapse of the specified period.
Embalmed cadaver who allegedly discharged a firearm shall no longer be subjected to
paraffin examination because of the impossibility of extracting the gunpowder nitrates from the
former's hands.

Taking of Paraffin Casts

Materials and Apparatus:
Paraffin wax (M.P. 38-40 C)
Absorbent cotton
Bond paper
Burner
Beaker or casserole
Tong
Procedure:
a. Heat the paraffin wax in a container until it melts. Allow cooling for a few minutes so that it will
not burn the skin.
b. Let the subject wash his hands with water without using any soap or detergent. Wipe the
hands of the subject with clean absorbent cotton.
c. Let the subject place his hands on a clean sheet of bond paper with the palms facing
downward and the fingers closed together. Using a spoon or tong with cotton, pour the melted
paraffin wax on the hands of the subject from the thumb and index fingers and the dorsal portion
to the little finger side of the hands.
d. Cover the hands and fingers thoroughly with paraffin wax and place a thin layer of absorbent
cotton to reinforce the wax.
e. Pour another layer of the wax until the absorbent cotton has totally absorbed the wax.
f. Allow the wax to cool and solidity before peeling them off.
g. When cool, direct the subject to move his fingers first and slowly moving his hands out from
the casts.
h. Place on the bond paper the case number, name of the subject, time and date, technician
who took the cast, witnesses and label right and left hand.
i. Place another bond paper on top of the paraffin casts and staple together.
j. Place the paraffin casts inside an envelope or a box for proper preservation.

Note:
It must be noted that upon casting, the melted paraffin wax penetrates the minute
crevices of the skin thus, the burned and partially burned gunpowder nitrates which are
embedded on the hands of the shooter are extracted. Upon application of Diphenylamine (DPA)
reagent on the paraffin casts, the appearance of "tailing deep blue specks" indicates the
presence of gunpowder nitrates.

Paraffin Wax
Paraffin wax is a white, translucent, tasteless, odorless solid consisting of a mixture of
solid hydrocarbons of high molecular weight. It is insoluble in water and acids and soluble in
benzene, ligroin, warm alcohol, chloroform, turpentine, carbon disulfide, and olive oil.
Combustible, auto ignition temperature 473 F (245 degree "C).
The melted paraffin wax penetrates the minute crevices of the skin upon application,
thus, adhering if there are particles present. When the casts are peeled, the burned and partially
burned particles are extracted. A person firing a gun will likely have the particles located above
the thumb and forefingers since these are the surfaces exposed to the gun.

What should be noted in the interpretation of results:

Time of reaction
- Number and characteristic of blue and minute specks
- The location and character of the blue specks
- Distribution and location

Different names of this test:

Lunge's test
Diphenylamine test
Dermal nitrate test
Gonzales test - named after the one who improved the test

Question: Is there any means of removing these nitrates from the hands? How long will
they stay in the pores?
Answer: None. Ordinary washing will not remove the nitrates from the pores of the skin.
Usually, gunpowder nitrates that are embedded on the skin stay for 72 hours. That is why
paraffin casting should be conducted within the specified period.

Substances giving false positive result:

1. fertilizers
2. explosives
3. tobacco
4. urine
5. certain cosmetics
6. food samples
7. Cigarette

Question: Will these substances not give positive result for paraffin test?
Answer: If the hands of the subject person are contaminated with nitrates other than from
gunpowder, one will expect to find smudges or just a smear of blue color or a conglomeration of
blue specks. But nitrates from gunpowder appear as blue speck with tailings, because these
particles were embedded into the hands with force.

Question: Is paraffin test result conclusive evidence? Why?

Answer: No. It is just corroborative evidence which intends to support the testimony of
eyewitness/es. There are instances wherein a person who actually discharged a firearm would
still give a negative result to the paraffin test because of several factors.
Question: What are these factors?
Answer: 1. Types of calibers of ammunition
2. Use of gloves
3. Length of the barrel
4. Age of the gun/efficiency of mechanism
5. Direction of firing
6. Wind direction and velocity
7. Humidity/ percentage moisture in air
8. When 72 hours had already lapsed (3 days)

Types of calibers of ammunition.

A hand discharging a revolver is more likely to give a positive result for gunpowder
nitrates compared to that of a hand discharging a pistol. In an automatic pistol, the chamber is
an integral part of the barrel, whereas in the revolver, the chamber is located in the cylinder and
separated from the barrel with airspace. Thus, leakage of powder in a revolver is more likely to
occur.

False Positive result

1. Contamination or transfer of gunshot residue (GSR) to the body by mishandling, or when the
body is heavily contaminated by GSR from previous shooting.
2. Washing of hands where samples are collected
3. Type of ammunition such as rifle and shot gun.

Length of the barrel.

A weapon of 2-inch barrel will deposit residue over a larger area than a weapon of 5-
inch barrel (even if they are discharged from the same distance with the same type of
ammunition). In a longer barrel, the hand is farther away from the muzzle end of the gun. It
takes a bullet to travel in more time, thus using up/burning up more, if not all, of the nitrates. In a
short barrel, the bullet travels through the barrel in less time leaving behind a greater amount of
unburned particles.

Age of the gun/efficiency of mechanism.

Complete combustion or the conversion of all nitrates into its end product (CO, CO, N,
O, -OH) is more likely to occur in a new weapon compared to an old one. Besides, leakage of
gunpowder is more likely to happen in the old weapon where the breech mechanism is no
longer tightly fitted.

Direction of firing.
More powder residues will be obtained when the gun is discharged pointing upward than
downward. Gunpowder residues have weight and will naturally fall down because of gravity.

Wind direction and velocity.

In high velocity (strong wind), the powder residues will be blown in the direction of the
wind. One is more likely to be positive for gunpowder nitrates if there is no wind, or the wind
direction is towards the shooter.
Humidity/percentage moisture in air.
Humidity lessens the extent of combustion yielding more gunpowder nitrates.

False Positive reaction - smear of blue color or a conglomeration of blue specks on both
dorsal and palm aspects of the hand.
Failure to find traces of nitrate on the hand of the person does not prove that he did not
fire a gun. But it is submitted that the paraffin test has some value due to the psychological
effect on the persons whose hands were found positive. Also, the finding of actual traces of
gunpowder nitrates on the hand/s of the person does not conclusively determine or establish
that he has discharged a gun. It is possible that the GPR particle may have been blown on the
hand directly from the barrel of the gun being discharged by another person.

Gunpowder Residue Test on Firearms

The diphenylamine reagent is also applied to cotton swabbing of the barrel and
chambers of the gun to determine if the firearm was discharged. A deep blue color resulting
from the reaction of nitrates with the reagent indicates presence of gunpowder residue.

Established Forensic Rules:

a. The Forensic Chemist on case shall conduct the gunpowder residue examination (GPR)
without delay.
b. After the examination is done, the firearm shall be returned to the representative of the
requesting unit if the request is solely for gunpowder residue (GPR) examination, or submitted
to the FAID if ballistic examination is required.

Gunshot Range (GSR) Determination (Also known as gunshot distance determination)

When a firearm is discharged, gunpowder residue may also be deposited on the clothing
of the victim. The size and density of the pattern of gunpowder residue found on the clothing are
the main factors considered in determining the approximate distance of the shooter to the
victim. As the distance to the victim increases, the size of pattern expands while density
decreases and vice-versa.

Distance determination – the method of determining the distance between the firearm and the
target. This is usually based on the distance of the powder patterns or the spread of the shot
pattern.

Importance of Distance Determination

1. In connection to self-defense pleas
2. In the distinction between murder and suicide. It is possible to state with certainty the
distance of the gun from the target by means of the patterns and residues left on the target. Not
only the type of gun, but also the condition and type of ammunition that will affect this pattern.
In ascertaining the gunshot range (GSR) the examiner should note and observe the following:
1. Entrance and Exit holes
2. Powder residue pattern (Burning, singeing, smudging, tattooing - a black coarsely
peppered pattern)

Entrance and Exit holes:

Entrance hole contains gunpowder residue (bullet wipe residue) and it is slightly burned.
The diameter of entrance hole is smaller than the exit hole.
The exit hole is frayed outward while entrance hole is inward.

Other Entrance hole characteristics:

 a. Angled bullet entrance hole has elongated hole.
b. Contact fires have uneven margins but all entrance holes typically have even margins.
c. Grazing bullet hole (several small holes created from a folded garment)
Classification of gunshot distance
-Burning (direct)
-Singeing (1 to 2 inches)
-Smudging (2 to 8 inches)
-Tattooing (8 to 18 inches)

The distance of the muzzle of the gun to the target is classified into three (3):
1. Direct contact
2. 2 inches to 36 inches away
3. 36 inches away or more

Tests for Gunshot Residue (GSR)

- Nitrite and
- Lead residue chemical examination

Characteristics of Gunshot wounds

a. Direct/Contact wounds
The principal damage is more visible due to the flame and the muzzle blast than to the
penetration of bullet. The following observations may be noted:
1.Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn
2.Blackened area surrounding the bullet hole
3.The presence of partially burned powder residues around the entrance hole

b. Wounds inflicted at a Distance from 2-36 inches:

If the gun is discharged closely to the body of the victim, two (2) types of discoloration
will be observed around the hole of the entrance namely: (1) smudging and (2) powder
tattooing (black coarsely peppered pattern).
Smudging is produced when the gun is held from about 2 inches to the maximum of 8
inches. The smoke and soot from the burned pores are deposited around the hole of the
entrance producing a dirty appearance.
The size of the smudge depends upon the following:
A. Length of the barrel: A weapon of 2-inch barrel will deposit residue over a larger
area than a weapon of 5-inch barrel (even if they are fired from the distance with the same type
of ammunition). In a longer barrel, the hand is farther away from the muzzle end of the gun. It
takes a bullet to travel in more time, thus, using up/burning up more, if not all, of the nitrates. In
a short barrel, the bullet travels through the barrel in less time leaving behind a greater amount
of unburned particles.
B. Age of the gun/efficiency of mechanism: Complete combustion or the conversion
of all nitrate into its end product is more likely to occur in a new weapon compared to an old
one. Besides, leakage of gunpowder is more likely to happen in the old weapon where the
breech mechanism is no longer tightly fitted.
C. Direction of Firing: More powder residues will be obtained when the gun is fired
upward than downward. Gunpowder residues have weight and will naturally fall down because
of gravity.
D. Wind Direction and Velocity: In high velocity (strong wind), the powder residues will
be blown in the direction of the wind. One is more likely to be positive for gunpowder nitrates if
there is no wind, or the direction is away from the body.
 E. Humidity/percentage moisture in air: Humidity lessens the extent of combustion
yielding more gunpowder nitrates.
Powder tattooing produces black coarsely peppered pattern. Individual specks of
tattooing around the hole are visible by the naked eye.
The area of blackening around the perforation will be found to diminish in size as the
muzzle of the gun is held further away from the target.
Take note that the size of the area of powder tattooing will also depend on the following:
-Caliber
-Powder charge
-Distance of firing
Individual specks of tattooing around the hole are visible to the naked eye. The area of
blackening around the perforation will be found to diminish in size as the muzzle of the gun is
held further and at the distance of 8 inches, blackening around the hole will completely
disappear. A few individual specks of tattooing will be visible to the naked eye.

c. Wounds inflicted at a Distance of more than 36 inches:

- Powder tattooing is seldom present
- Nitrates found will not be sufficient for GSR
Bullet Comparison - a type of examination using cope which is commonly used in
comparison of an empty shell containing characteristic marks from groves of the gun barrel and
firing pin of specific firearm used.
Other methods of examination - To determine whether the victim was holding a
firearm, one method used is by spraying the hands of the victim with ferrozine spray to
determine the presence of iron traces. (Lee, 1986) Hydroxyquinoline test with fluorescent
photography can also be used. (Stevens and Messler, 1974)
A suicide victim's hands are stained with orange-brown color upon contact with gun
barrels following death, presumably from perspiration with prolonged post-mortem interval of
intact.
Latent fingerprints can be detected in cartridge and expended shell casing. It is latent
because the substance from perspiration, mixed with oils from sebaceous glands, are
transferred via a substance on the skin ridges to an object. Increase of temperature and low
decreases persistence of fingerprints. Brass retains fingerprint than nickel-plated materials.
(Given, 1976)

FIREARM EXAMINATION
Methods used to determine the probable time the firearm has been discharged:
a. Lucas test
A characteristic smell that decreases in intensity with lapse of time is present
immediately after firing but even after several weeks some slight smell remains.
b. Odor (Hydrogen Sulfide)
This is another product resulting from combustion of gunpowder which is present in the
gaseous state. This compound can be detected by means of lead acetate paper test.
If the breech of the gun is kept closed, this persists between 2-3 hours.
Sulfide - the greater part disappears in about 4-5 hours but frequently a trace remains
for a longer time, the longest period being 10 hours.
c. Odor of the Barrel (rusting)
As a rule, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of a firearm if such firearm has not
been discharged. But if the firearm has been discharged, iron salts are formed and can be
detected inside the barrel. These iron salts are soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust.
The formation of rust is affected by the humidity of the air so that in the interpretation of the
result, this factor must always be considered.
 d. Presence of Nitrates (by cotton swabbing method)
Nitrates diminish after a lapse of time. Nitrates can be detected by swabbing a portion of
residue in a barrel and mixing the residue with Diphenylamine solution (DPA).
e. Dermal Nitrate test
The test is designed to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates on the hands of
the alleged shooter.

Distance from which the gun has been discharged

Significance:
a. In connection with self-defense
b. In the distinction between murder and suicide. It can be stated with certainty the distance of
the gun from the target by way of patterns of residues left on the victim.
Scorching or Singeing
If a firearm was discharged very close to the target as in a case of alleged suicide and
sometimes in murder, burns or scorches may result. This resulting reaction is caused by flame
that emerges from the muzzle and travels only a short distance from it. This distance will vary
with the length of the barrel, the size of the powder charge and the degree to which the bullet fill
the barrel. The presence of scorch is a proof that the firearm was discharged a few inches away
from the target. Scorching is very rare if the victim was shot 3 inches or more away from the
muzzle.

Other Methods of Examination

The following are the sophisticated instruments used to determine the gunshot range
residue (GSR):
AAS - Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
NAA - Neutron Activation Analysis
SEM-EDX - Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis
ICP-MS - Inductively couled plasma with Mass Spectrophotometry

COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND TRANSITOF SPECIMEN

Important points to remember in the collection, preservation and transit of specimen:
a. Clothing removed from the victim should be cautiously and carefully handled to prevent
powder residues from becoming dislodged
b. Do not wad the specimen or pack it loosely for shipment.
c. Secure the area to be tested between two layers of heavy cardboard fastened together tightly
to prevent the specimen from becoming postlude about in the transit.
d. Each specimen should be wrapped tightly and marked.
e. Clothing heavily smeared with blood should be dried thoroughly before packing.
f. Gun recovered from the scene of the crime and ammunition available should be preserved.
g. Person suspected to have discharged a firearm should be subjected to a paraffin test. (Cover
his hands with paper bags to avoid contamination). Examination must be performed
immediately and in no case should it be postponed 72 hours after the shooting.

CHAPTER IX: EXPLOSIVE AND EXPLOSION

Explosive, defined.
Explosive is any substance that may cause
explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion.
It is any chemical compound or mixture that under
the influence of heat, pressure, friction or shock,
undergoes a sudden chemical change or decomposition.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES
1. According to the Velocity of Reaction
The speed of chemical reaction or detonation of
the explosive determines the classification of explosive as
a) low; b) primary and initiating; and c) high explosives.
A. Low explosives
These are low burning and used mainly as
propellants like black and smokeless powder. The rate of
decomposition is a relatively slow process and the wave
produced is less than the speed of sound. These are used
for launching rockets, projectiles from guns and missile systems.
Classes of Low explosives
a. Primer
b. Igniter
c. Propellant

Primer
At the other end of the delay is the primer, an explosive (generally lead azide, mercury fulminate.
Igniter (Black / Gun Powder)
Igniter in gun propellants and safety blasting fuses, delay fuses, signal and distress rockets and in
firecrackers are used in mining and low power explosive.
Composition:
a) Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) + charcoal + sulfur
b) Sodium nitrate (NaNo3) + charcoal + sulfur
c) Sulfurless black powder = KNO3 + charcoal
d) Pyrodex = KNO3 + potassium perchlorate
e) (KclO4) + charcoal + sulfur + cyanoguanidine
Propellants
Propellants are used in launching projectiles from guns, rockets and missile system. It is a mixture of one
or more energetic materials (main charge), plasticizers to improve processing characteristics, stabilizers
to increase storage life and inorganic additives to facilitate handling, ignitability and decrease muzzle
mesh.

Kinds of Propellants
1.Smokeless Powder
The most widely used propellant is based on Nitrocellulose (NC). Single based contains sole NC, while
double based contains Nitroglycerine (NG) in addition to NC and triple based contains NG + NC +
Nitroguanidine.

Single-based:
a). Nitrocellulose (NC) + Diphenylamine (DPA) + Dinitrotoluenee (DNT) + dibutyl phthalate
b). NC + DPA + Potassium Sulfate (K2SO4)
c). NC + DPA + K2SO4 + DNT

Double-based:
a). NC+ Nitroguanidine (NG) + Potassium Nitrate (KNO 3) + Rthyl centralite + graphite
b). NC + NG + KNO3 + Et centralite + diethyl phtalate
c). NC + NG + Et centralite + triacetin + Pb salicylate + Pb stearate
d). NC + NG + diethyl phtalate + 2-nitroDPA + lead salts + wax

Triple-based:
a). NC + NG + nitroguanidine + NaAIF + Et centralite
b). NC + NG + nitroguanidine + NaAlF + dibutyl phtalate + 2- nitroDPA

2.Nitrates / Nitrites (Found in blackpowder)

Salts of nitrates, such as KNO3, is used as ingredient in fireworks, gunpowder, powders, matches
(improve burning prop). These are also used to impregnate candlewicks. It is also used in picking meat
and tobacco treatment for evenly burning.

B. Primary and initiating explosive

This kind of explosive is extremely sensitive to detonation by heat, shock, friction and impact. It
detonates without burning, like lead azide and mercury fulminate. This is used primarily to start an
explosion.
Example: Initiators, blasting caps, shock primer and stab

Characteristics of Primary Explosives

1. Can be initiated by a mechanical shock
2.Primary explosives are friction and heat sensitive materials
3. Readily ignited when comes in contact with flame or sparks.

C. High explosives
These explosives have very fast or high detonating rate like dynamites, TNT, and Cyclonite (RDX).
The speed of its detonation wave equals to 1000m/s and pressure equals to thousands of
atmospheres. Such intensity can break a material into fragments long before its opportunity to move
away.

II. According to their Chemical structure

a. Organic explosives
b. Inorganic explosives
A. Organic explosives - Nitro-containing organic compound
Carbon-nitro (C-NO2) group
Nitrate ester (C-O-NO2) group
Nitramines (C-N-NO2) group
B. Inorganic explosives -These are salt-containing explosives

III. According to their application or design

a. Military explosives
b. Industrial explosives
A. Military explosives
The following are some of the basic explosives:
Composition: 4 (C4)-mixtures of RDX = polyisobutylene + di- (2-ethylhexyl) secabate + fuel oil
Amatol = 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) + Ammonium Nitrate (AN) mixture
Cyclotol = TNT + ammonium picrate
Tritonal = TNT + Aluminum

B. Industrial explosives
a. Dynamites - first explosive invented by Alfred Nobel. It contains up to 75% Nitroglycerin
absorbed and desensitized by 25%^ diatomaceous earth (Kieselguhr)/Oxidizer can be relapsed to
increase the energy yield.
b. Ammonium nitrate explosives - (AN-nitro mixture and AN-fuel oil or ANFO)
c. Water explosives - slurries and water gel, explosive emulsions.
Slurries and water gels - made of aqueous solution of ammonium nitrate and sodium or calcium
nitrate, gelled by guar gum or cross-linking agent.
Explosive Emulsions - sensitized by air bubbles, introduced by means of hollow glass or plastic
bubbles. The storage time is limited because of the bubbles.
d. Home-made or Improvised explosives - these are improvised explosives usually assembled at
home. These are easy to assembly.
e. Explosives with limited use - include those which were used in the past and became obsolete.

Some common commercial explosives

1. Blasting caps - one of the most commonly found explosives used to set off main charge. These are
small thin cylinders with silver and copper color with 0.25-to-0.5-inch diameter and 2 to 6 inches in
length. It contains powerful and sensitive explosives. Even the heat of a person's hand can set off a
blasting cap.
2. Safety Fuse - A time-delay devise much like a firecracker fuse. It has a black powder core and
waterproof jacket of solid striped colors.
3. Detonating cord - usually, this has a white exterior containing PETN. This is used to set off multiple
charges Simultaneously.
4. Blasting agents - a combination of fuel and oxidants such as fuel oil and ammonium nitrate. The color
ranges from brown to bright pink due to the fuel added. This requires booster since the components are
not confined and cannot be set off by blasting cap. This kind of explosive was used in New York World
Trade Center and Oklahoma City bombings.
5. Boosters - cylinder shaped with holes in which blasting cap is inserted. This is used to increase the
power of the initiating charges.
6. Dynamites - cartridge or sticks typically 1 to 3 inches in diameter and 8 to 24 inches in length.
7. Slurries or gels - liquid and semi-liquid form of commercial explosive.
8. Black or smokeless powder - common over the counter explosive used in reloading gun ammunitions.

Some common Military Explosives

1. Grenades
2. Fuses - used to initiate explosive in any warhead
Two (2) types of fuse:
a. Point detonated (PD) – by impact, proximity or delay
b. Variable Time (VT) - detonates when the warhead is at certain distance from the target
3. Ammunitions
4. Rockets and Missiles
5. Mines
6. Submunitions
7. Air drop
8. Incendiaries - devise that burns rather than explode
9. Chemical ordnance - simple as riot grenade or smoke bomb or as lethal as sarin nerve gas. US type,
typically gray with colored bands.

Laboratory Examination
Suspected explosives and extracted powder from live bombs or blasting caps should be
examined qualitatively which includes chemical and confirmatory tests to determine the presence of
explosive and/or explosive ingredients.
Why do Law Enforcers to know about need explosives?
1. They often encounter explosives which are found at the construction sites or those buried
underground.
2. Law enforcers encounter explosives at the crime scene.
3. Law enforcers should know some lands may contain toxic chemicals and explosive ordnance.

Explosion, defined.
Explosion is a violent bursting or
expansion caused by the release of
mechanical, chemical or nuclear energy
from a confined area. This is a
phenomenon resulting from a sudden
release of energy and this happens so
rapidly that a local accumulation of
energy occurs at the site of explosion
moving outward in various ways.
Implosion is a similar
phenomenon except that the energy
released is initially directed inward.

Types of Explosion
a. Mechanical explosion - it is a
sudden breaking apart, shattering or
bursting into pieces by internal pressure,
such as those caused by expansion of gas
producing high pressure beyond the
capacity of the container. Also known as
pressure explosion.
b. Atomic explosion - resulting from atomic transformations.
c. Chemical explosion - a source wherein the source of energy comes from an explosive
substance such as gunpowder produced through the extremely rapid transformation of unstable
substances accompanied by the formation of heat.
Factors affecting the Rate of Explosion of Explosion or Brisance
a. Method of initiation
b. Nature of explosive
c. Size and confinement of the charge (smaller container tends to increase the temperature
from the growing heat of reaction).
d. Physical condition (such as air density and temperature).

Question:
Can there be an explosion without an explosive?

Answer:
Yes, there can be an explosion without an explosive, because explosion may be caused by sudden
breaking apart, shattering or bursting into pieces by internal pressure, such as those caused by
expansion of gas producing high pressure beyond the capacity of the container.
Even the tiniest drop of water can be considered as explosion.

Note:
It must be noted that the term "explosion" should not be limited only to a phenomenon
resulting from atomic transformations wherein the source of energy comes from an explosive
substance. Explosion may be caused by sudden breaking apart, shattering or bursting into pieces by
internal pressure, such as those caused by expansion of gas producing high pressure beyond the
capacity of the container.

Mechanism and Effect of Explosion

An explosion produces very rapid growing shockwaves moving outward as it transforms into a
more stable substance. It is accompanied by a loud and sharp report as it liberates great amount of
energy in the form of heat, light and other form of gases.
SHOCKWAVE CHAIN REACTION SUBSTANCE STABLE

Chain reaction causes the decomposition and rearrangement of molecules with a greater
release of energy.

Explosive strength
The magnitude of an explosion can be established based on the amount of energy that is
released.
The absolute measure of explosion size is determined in terms of the energy released by
exploding an explosive.

Damage Mechanism
a. Brisance - is the direct measure of energy transmission from explosion to the target. This is
the most severe because of its shattering action. Brisance is directly proportional to the speed of
decomposition of explosives. Explosives with high shattering power are termed high explosives. The
brisance effect of deflagrating materials is relatively small.
b. Sensitivity - is the effort required to initiate explosive decomposition. The lesser the effort
required, the more sensitive is the explosive.
c. Shock Wave - the damage produced depend on the location of explosion.
Blastwave - If the detonation occurs above or just below the surface of the ground, most of the damage
will be given off by the blast, splinters or fragments from the explosive case that travels as fast as the
speed of sound (1000 meters per second).
Blastwave is generated when the atmosphere surrounding the explosion is forcibly pushed back.
1. Earth shock - wave produced when an explosive detonates underground producing an
earthquake.
2. Water shock - wave produced when an ordnance is detonated underwater.
Safety Procedures when responding to an explosive Incident
a. Do not use two-way radios, radar, or television transmitting device within 500 feet. This includes
Mobile Data Terminals and cellular phones. Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) given off by these devices
can detonate the item.
b. Notify proper authorities. (BFP, Police department, EOD, etc.)
c. Clear and control the area. The size and type of explosive, terrain, shielding and other factors will
determine the area to be controlled.
d. Stage emergency medical service (EMS), Fire and Police units outside the control point.
e. Do not proceed to the suspected explosive. It may have motion sensitive or acoustic fuses that
function when disturbed or senses target. Use binoculars to observe the area.
f. Reduce potential effect of blast and flying shrapnel by opening doors and windows and by placing
emergency vehicles in the path of the blast wave to act as shield.

CHAPTER X: SCENE EXAMINATION

What evidence to collect:
1. Formation of saucer- like crater
2. Presence of fragments and furrow lines (striation marks) ripped through grasses by flying
fragments
3. Blast, suction, and fragment damage to nearby structures and vegetation
4. Characteristic smell of burned explosives closest to the crater
5. Blackening of earth in the crater (carbon deposit)

Precautions
1. Strict observance of BASIC SAFETY precautions.
2. Never divide phase of assignment. One must be in charge at all times.
3. Determine the ESSENTIAL personnel on the recon site.
4. Do not rush.
5. Do not remain in the immediate area than absolutely necessary.
6. Use protective clothing.
7. In the presence of liquid droplets, dead animals, dissolved paint or painted surfaces, peculiar
odors (other than explosives), assume the presence of chemical agents.
8. Leave recovery to EOD personnel.

Laboratory Identification
1. Pre-blast explosive device
2. Post blast explosive fragments
3. Explosive ingredients

Selectivity and Sensitivity

Sensitivity - the smallest concentration where a method will give the same response with the larger
concentration
Selectivity - one method for one sample that can be discriminated from another
METHODS OF EXAMINATION/DETECTION
1. Vapor Density Method
a. Trained animal - Dogs have been successfully used to detect hidden illegal drugs and
explosives. They are trained to sniff explosive vapors.
Olfactory system - system used to detect the odors smelled through the nose and
interpreted in the brain as signals.
b. Absorption and pre-concentration of vapors
c. Gas Chromatography - Electron capture detector (GC-ECD)
2. Bulk Density Method
a. X-ray imaging: X-ray beam is used to attenuate (reduce size, strength and density) the
explosive vapors. Detection indicates the extent of darker areas of the image.
b. Energetic photon Detection
c. Thermal neutron activation
3. Laboratory Examination
a. Physical test
b. Chemical test
Physical Test - ocular inspection, weighing the specimen, and sampling
Sample preparation – extraction, preconcentration, derivatization.
Chemical Test:
a. Color test - by adding specific reagent to sample producing different colors. The color formed is due
to the energy produced from the reaction, which corresponds to the wavelength in the visible region
(400-800 nm). Example: blue color (480-510 nm).
b. Confirmatory test by:
Chromatography (TLC, HPLC, GC-ECD, GC-MS), Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy (Mass Spectroscopy, Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy, Fourier Transform IR Spectroscopy,
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy)

Fire, defined.
Fire is a chemical reaction (rapid oxidation) that produces physical effects with evolution
of heat and light. This reaction is called combustion.
Fire Investigation is the comprehensive analytical approach by understanding the
fundamental property of fire by determining the chemistry of fires, fuels, and combustion. It is
advantageous for an investigator and lawyer on case if they have at least basic knowledge
about fire.

Objectives / Purpose of Fire Investigation

1. To save lives and to prevent injuries
2. To determine the origin and cause of fire
3. To provide proof of fact during trial
4. To prepare to defend those conclusions in rational and logical manner supported by
scientific valid data.

Classification of Fire Investigation

 1. Natural
2. Accidental
3. Unknown origin
4. Suspicious
5. Incendiary (obvious arson)

Incendiary fire
This is the largest and most obvious fire investigated. The primordial intent is to destroy
property of another.

Issues in Fire Investigation

1. Lack of time
2. Misidentified as accidental fire due to lack of experience
3. Intentionally made to avoid complication of identifying a fire as a criminal act (long
investigative time, generates negative publicity on the community).

Arson Investigation
Under the law, arson is the malicious burning of dwelling, house, or building of another.
In all fires, there must be a cause before an effect is produced. This cause is known as
combustion. Combustion is the effect of certain causes and if these causes are not present,
there can be no combustion, spontaneous or otherwise.
The assistance of a Forensic expert plays an important role in arson investigation.
Oftentimes, fire has been done maliciously, hence, the determination of the nature and cause
of the fire depends on the result of examination of an expert based on the evidence collected
from the crime scene. The examination will not only save the time of the investigator but also
prevent the accusation of an innocent person.

Technical Aspects of Arson Cases

Burning or combustion is the rapid oxidation of substances accompanied by the
generation of heat and light. Burning occurs only when three (3) essential ingredients are
present: fuel, oxygen, and heat. Obviously, to create a fire, there must be combustible
materials. It may be solid, liquid or gas. Strictly speaking, only gases burn.
The solids and liquids must be heated to liberate flammable gases. The gases in turn
must rise to the proper temperature before ignition occurs. Hence, there must be presence of
combustible materials to burn and a source of heat to raise the temperature of the fuel to the
kindling point.
Finally, there must be a supply of oxygen since burning is a process of oxidation. Oxygen
may be supplied from the air or from oxidizing agents.

Causes of Fire
 A fire may be produced intentionally or accidentally. One of the methods of proving
arson is to determine systematically the presence of malice and intent in burning the property
of another.
An accidental fire may arise from the working of certain forces of nature or from
negligence in the use of equipment and materials.

Natural causes of fire

Sunrays are focused by bubbles in windowpanes, shaving mirrors or by some other
peculiarly shaped glass article, which may serve as convex lens.
Lightning usually strikes a high point of the building and may be traced in its path to the
ground. Traces of lightning are melting of metal parts of the building-streaked paint with
burned ores, cracks in the walls, broken bricks and soot driven into rooms from the chimney.

Indications of Arson Fire

Arson fire is generally indicated by:
1. Burning faster and larger than normal
2. Often having multiple points of origin
3. Use of accelerants
4. A time delay device (a matchbox and cigarette are a 22-minute fuse)
5. Cans and containers are usually found at the crime scene
Heat can be estimated by the condition of window glass
Small shards of glass mean an explosion took place.
“Crazing" means a hot fire.
Melted copper, aluminum and other metals usually mean an accelerant was used.
Soot that wipes off easily from glass or slightly charred studs behind the walls means a
quick fire.

COMBUSTION, NATURE AND BEHAVIOR OF FIRE

Combustion, defined.
Combustion is a burning reaction in which a substance combines with a gas. Heat and
light usually accompanied by combustion reaction and most of this reaction involve oxygen.
Example: Hydrogen combined with oxygen will undergo rapid oxidation and produces
water and heat.

Two types of Combustion

1. Flaming - destructive, gaseous combustion where both the fuel and oxidizer are gases.
Flaming fire is achieved when gas or vapor is continuously burning.
2. Glowing – absence of fire but presence of very hot materials on surface of which combustion
is proceeding.

Two kinds of Combustion

a. Complete combustion - all of the reactants are consumed
b. Incomplete combustion - only some parts of the reactant are consumed
Basic Combustion Condition
1. Presence of Combustible fuel
2. Oxidizer
3. Energy of ignition (heat) applied
4. Interaction of fuel and oxidizer to sustain chain reaction
Matter - elements and compounds: composed of atoms combined forming molecules
Air - composed of 21% oxygen and 75% Nitrogen
Oxidation - is a combination of elements and compounds with oxygen producing stable
substances. Those compounds and elements that combine with oxygen and produces fire are
called flammable substance and the process is called combustion.
Pyrolysis - comes from the Greek word pyro (fire) and lysis (decompose); process of
decomposition of material to simpler compounds brought about by heat from fire.
Flame - is a gaseous reaction where plume of hot gases rises by convection when air and
its oxygen is maintained by solid (soot) or liquid (aerosol) in a closed room.
Theoretically,
 If oxygen falls below 15%, combustion rate decreases.
 If the temperature reaches 900 - 1000 degree C, post flashover room fires which
concentration is only 5-8%.
 If 0 - 5% and the temperature reaches 1000 degree C-flaming hot.
Nitrogen, N – presence of nitrogen helps/ delivers extra oxygen to continue the
combustion reaction.
Example: presence of Nitrates (NO3) in fuel
Color Temperature of Incandescent hot object (glowing fire)
1.Dark red - 500 to 600 deg C
2.Dull red - 600 - 800 deg C
3.Bright cherry red - 800 - 1000 deg C
4.Orange - 1000 – 1200 deg C
5.Bright yellow 1200 – 1400 deg C
6.white - 1400 – 1600 deg C

Fire Triangle
1. Fuel 1
2. Heat. Ignition 2
3. Oxidant 3

Explosive Triangle
1. Fuel
2. Ignition
3. Oxidant

Color of Smoke and Odor being evolved

1. White - humid materials
2. Light gray - hay and vegetable matter
3. Black - lack of air with huge flames usually petroleum based.
4. Reddish brown/thick yellow/brownish yellow – nitrocellulose fires, sulfur and sulfuric, nitric
or other chemicals.
5. Biting smoke- indicates the presence of sulfur
6. Rotten-Cabbage like odor - indicates the presence of carbon disulfide
7. Garlic odor - indicates the presence of phosphorous.

Application of Heat to Fire investigation

1. Heat as applied for igniting fire
2. Heat as applied for increasing rate of chemical reaction
3. Transfer of heat.

Transfer of Heat
1. Conduction - transfer by contact between moving molecules from hot to cold areas.
2. Convection - distribution of heat by circulating medium
3. Radiation - critical where it aids fire to spread and promotes ignition of other fuels.

Two types of Heat Reaction

1. exothermic - heat is released from the system
2. endothermic - heat is absorbed to the system.

SOURCES OF IGNITION
Ignition involves burning the fuel to characteristics temperature by convection,
conduction or radiation of heat until it can sustain combustion. The following are the sources of
ignition:
Sparks/ Arks
Primary igniters
Lighters
Hot object/surface
Friction

Primary Igniters
Matches - is the most common device for kindling a flame. It is composed of
combustible material combined with head containing both fuel and oxidizer that can be ignited
by friction.
Two types of primary igniters:
1. Strike anywhere/kitchen match - the tip contains a high percentage of Phosphorous
sesquisulfide (P4S3) and ground glass.
Component: oxidant = Potassium Chlorate
Fuel = Sulfur or paraffin + binder or glue + filler (silica)
2.Safety match - will ignite only using abrasives (rough) materials
 Component: oxidant = red phosphorous
Fuel = sulfur

Lighters
Lighters can explode when exposed to a high temperature and form a leakage when
exposed to a reduced atmospheric pressure such as airplane.
Two types of lighter:
A. Electrical / element type – electrically connected to a battery of vehicles, current, etc.
B. Liquid fuel lighters - contain liquid butane or light petroleum as fuel in a compartment under
pressure.

Sparks/ Arks
Sparks/ Arks can be produced using electrical current discharging through the air or
insulator, or tiny fragment of burning or glowing solid.
Hot object/ surface
Hot object may convert the fuel to vapor which eventually starts a fire.
Friction
Friction between two moving objects/surfaces generates heat.
Example: brake shoes of automobiles can become extremely hot.

Other Sources of Ignition

1. Radiant heat
2. Chemical reaction
3. Other sources: fireplace and chimneys
4. Trash burners and bonfires
5. Hot/molten metals
6. Mechanical sparks
7. Firearm residue: during discharge of rifle, flakes escaping from the muzzle of a short barrel
handgun is burning. These flakes can ignite finely divided cotton and similar combustibles at
very close range (1 to 4 feet).
8. Smoking, Lightning, spontaneous combustion, ignition of electrical linings.

LABORATORY DENTIFICATION
Recognition, Collection and Preservation of Physical evidence
In recognizing fire, identify first the origin. In this case, many evidences can be
recovered such as partially burned and unburned fuels. This is usually trapped in crevices or
under the collapsed chimneys, etc.
In collecting physical evidence such as debris use your nose if a vapor detector is not
available. Collect as many as you can until the container is completely filed. If the container is
completely filled with debris, evaporation of volatile accelerants will be prevented even if the
container is opened.
 Preservation: usual container used is unused metal paint cans or glass with a screw
cap.
Laboratory Examination
1. Color test using "Sudan Black".
In this method of examination, the accelerants are allowed to evaporate and the vapors
are reacted with this chemical until pink color of solution will appear which indicates the
presence of any accelerant.
2. Confirmatory examination: Gas chromatography with Headspace
This analytical method is used to detect specific volatile accelerants by comparing it with
standard such as kerosene, gasoline, etc.

How to minimize the fire

Fire incidents can be prevented by:
1.Better building designs
2. Fire safety practice
LESSON 12: TOOL MARK
Introduction
 A tool mark is any impression, abrasion, or cut made when contact occurs
between a tool and an object.
 Tool marks are a good example of physical evidence formed at a crime
scene.
 Mass-produced tools have minor differences that can differentiate one tool
from another.
 The impressions made by these tools could link the tool to a crime scene
and ultimately to the owner.
Tools and Crime Scenes
 Tools increase our ability to handle manual tasks.
 Tools that help people everyday can also be used in crimes.
 How can a tool used in a crime lead investigators to the criminal?
 Why is ownership of a tool used in a crime circumstantial evidence?
Tool Mark Impressions
Indentation Marks
 Tools usually leave distinctive marks where they are used.
 The hardness of a tool influences the resulting marks left in the softer
object.
 Indentation marks are made when a tool is pressed against a softer surface.
 The impression may indicate information such as the size of the tool used
in a crime.

Abrasion Marks
 An object’s surface can be ground or 6 worn away by a tool.
 It is the harder object that will cause abrasions on the softer surface.
 Made when surfaces slide across each other. Indentation and abrasion
marks sometimes are made at the same time.

Cut Marks
  If they are hard enough, edged 8 instruments can penetrate a softer object
and separate it into parts.
 Cut marks are produced along the edge as a surface is cut.
 Cannot be matched exactly
 Hack saws, for example, leave chopping marks on a surface of contact.

Tool Mark Examination

 When a crime scene contains tool mark evidence, if the investigator is not
trained in this type of evidence collection, tool mark experts can be called
in.
 Evidence can include tool marks at the scene as well as the tool if it is left
at the scene.

Documenting the Evidence

 If possible, tool mark evidence is collected.
 If it is not possible, castings can preserve impressions of the tool marks.
 The cast impression will retain the unique indentation marks made by a
specific tool.
 A variety of silicone or rubber-based casting materials can be used to
record impression marks.
 Surfaces should be examined before casting material is applied to
determine if the area should be dusted for fingerprints.
 The use of magnetic dusting powder and silicone material allows for
fingerprints to be lifted from the surface before impression marks are cast.
 The size of the impression should be measured and recorded.

Collecting and Preserving a Sample

1. Correctly label evidence.
2. Wrap small objects with clean paper and place them in small containers or
plastic bags.
3. Pack large objects in cartons or boxes.
4. Record who collected the evidence, where it was found, when it was found,
and why the evidence was collected.
5. Maintain the chain of custody.
Analyzing Tool Mark Evidence
 Laboratory tool mark analysis aims to identify:
a. major characteristics defining the type of tool used in a crime.
b. unique characteristics that might distinguish between the same kinds of
tools.
c. Do not force the tool to match the tool mark!
 Forensic comparison microscopes are used to 15 further examine tool
mark characteristics that match a suspect tool.

New Technology in Tool Mark Identification

 In court, visual pattern comparisons are not enough.
 Tool mark databases (with images acquired by forensic comparison
microscopes) are being built. Algorithms to statistically analyze tool mark
patterns are being developed.
 Scanning tools are being used to measure the depth or height of tool
marks.

Tool Mark Evidence in the Courtroom

 The tool mark witness prepares a written report to present to a jury.
 Whenever possible, original evidence is presented in court.
 Often, castings and magnified images of tool mark comparisons are
presented at trial.
 Such evidence may be used to link a series of crimes.

Summary
 Tools have major and minor surface differences. Tool marks are
indentations, abrasions, or cut marks.
 Impressions made by tools could link them to a crime scene and ultimately
to the owner.
 Tool mark evidence should be photographed, documented, and collected
or cast.

LESSON: 13-GLASS-AND-GLASS-FRACTURE

Glass and Glass fracture

Glass is reasonably hard, transparent or translucent material composed of fused
inorganic materials, primarily of silicon dioxide (sand).
 Glass is super cooled liquid, amorphous in nature.
 It found in many shapes, size, colour and types.
 The wide variety of chemical compositions can alter its characteristics
 The wide variety of chemical compositions can alter its characteristics.

Type of Glass, their composition, and uses

Type Composition Uses
Soda-lime glass 60-70% silica, 12-18% Flat glass used for
soda, 5-15% lime and containers and light
other ingredients. bulbs
90% of all glass
Soda-lead glass Lead, lead oxide Called crystal or lead, the
glass having lead oxide
is used for cut glass
decanters, vases, and
bowls. The lead having
glass is useful for
decorative purpose and
gives white-blue color
fluoresces under UV
light.
Borosilicate 80% silica, 4% sodium Heat-resistant glass used
oxide, 2% alumina, 13% for ovenware and
boric oxide laboratory glassware,3
times better than soda-
lime glass
Fused silica glass 100% silica. Can be Highly heat-shock
heated to extremely high resistance used for
temperature and put into laboratory glass ware
cold water without and optical fibers.
cracking.
Coloured glass Glass gets colour from Decorative purposes
various metal oxide
added during its
manufacture.
 Nickel oxide- yellow to
purple
Cobalt oxide-blue and
gold
Copper or selenium-red

Type of glass
Laminated glass - Laminated glass is found in automobile windshields.
 Basically, it is two separate panes of plate glass adhered together with a
clear laminated layer.
 It was designed to reduce injuries to passengers in cases of accidents

Tempered glass/ safety glass- Tempered glass is a single pane glass that is
durable and difficult to fracture due to its significant surface tension.
 When enough force is applied to break this surface tension the entire pane
of glass fractures into thousands of small pieces (dicing).
  It is made stronger than ordinary glass by introducing stress through rapid
heating and cooling of glass surface.

Glass Fractures
Terminology
 Radial cracks are fractures extending outward from the point of impact.
 Concentric cracks are fractures forming in an approximately circular
pattern around the point of impact. They are usually in straight segments
that terminate in an existing radial crack.
 Cone or crater (Hertzian cone) is a funnel-shaped area of damage caused
by a high- velocity impact.
 Wallner lines (ridges) are rib-shaped marks with a wave-like pattern.
Wallner lines are called rib marks or ridges or conchoidal marks to
describe their shape and are almost always concave in the direction from
which the crack was propagating.
 3R Rule- Radial cracks form a Right angle on the Reverse side of the
force.
 Hackle is a line on the crack surface running parallel to the local direction
of crack spreading.
Types of Fractures
A) Low-velocity impact fractures

 Low-velocity projectiles produce cracks in the glass, which radiate outward

from the point of impact (radial cracks).
 If a pane is firmly held on all sides, concentric cracks can form around the
point of impact

 By observing the Wallner lines (ridges) on the radial cracks, the direction of
breaking force can often be determined. Observe only the Wallner lines on
the radial cracks nearest the point of impact.

B) High-velocity impact fractures

 A high-speed projectile striking a piece of glass will produce a cone
or crater.
 If the projectile passes through the glass, the opening on the exit
side will be larger than the opening on the entry side.
 The size of the hole and the diameter of the crater cannot be used to
reliably predict the size of the projectile.
 Projectiles that pass through the glass at an angle to the surface
produce an elongated hole.
 Radial cracks may also develop from high-velocity impact.

C) Thermal fractures
 In non-tempered glass a typical heat crack is curved, has a smooth
edge, and has no indication of the point of origin of the crack.
 If a pane of glass has been cracked by the action of heat, it shows
characteristic long wavy fractures.
 When glass is exposed to fire, it begins to melt at about 1200 degree
Fahrenheit. It becomes runny at about 1600 degree Fahrenheit.
 Glass that contains many cracks indicates a rapid heat build-up.
 Glass that is heavily stained indicates a slow, smoky fire.
Mechanism of glass fracture

 After a striking force, glass first bends in the direction of applied force
due to elasticity.
 When the elastic limit exceeds, glass begins to crack beginning with the
formation of a radial crack or fracture on the surface opposite to the
penetrating force.
  As the stress on the glass continues, concentric fracture form on the
front surface (surface where penetrating or striking force applied) of
the glass.
 Fracturing continues with alternating radial and concentric fractures
until the process ends.
 When the first radial fracture begins, stress occurs along the edges
closest to the point of impact, and the stress lines form called
conchoidal fractures.
 Conchoidal marks are shaped like arches. On the one side of the radial
edge (near the point of impact), the rib marks form right angles i.e.
perpendicular with the edge and nearly parallel to the opposite edge.
 Since these conchoidal marks form right angles opposite the side from
where the force is applied, they are useful to determine the direction of
the applied force (3R Rule).

Examination and Comparison of Glass Evidence

 Forensic glass analysis - A comparison of two or more glass fragments in an
attempt to determine if they originated from same/different source(s).
 Glass evidences provides class as well as individual characteristics
Physical Measurements
 Physical examinations could easily corroborate the presence of glass
materials vs other transparent materials.
 These observations are made in the preliminary stages of the analysis.
 The physical examination of glass can provide important information
such as:
Type of impact that caused the fracture of glass, e.g. a fracture caused by a
gunshot, body impact, or by a hard object such a tool or bat.
1. Direction of the force to establish if a window was broken from inside or from
outside.
2. Type of material, which may be very useful to corroborate or invalidate alibi
i.e. whether the glass is a flat architectural window, a tempered glass, a headlamp,
or a container.
3. Source of origin of the glass fragment, e.g. physical fit.
Glass appearance (fresh v/s scratched and dirty pieces may be important to
determine whether or not the glass transfer was recent, which is particularly
important in the transfer of glass to shoes).

Physical Fit
 A physical fit or physical “match” requires the edges of one fragment to
perfectly fit into an edge of another, much like a jig-saw puzzle. (Almirall,
2001).
  The match of pieces of glass is three dimensional and the analyst should
document the details by aims of photography.
 The match should also be observed under the microscope in order to
determine microscopic match of marks (striations, impressions, etc.)

Thickness
 In cases where glass is recovered as a fragment that present the full thickness
(original surfaces), it may be useful to measure the thickness of the glass.
 The thickness measurements can provide information about the possible type
of object from where it comes, i.e. a vehicle side window, tempered glass,
beverage bottle.
 To measure thickness, a micrometer or caliper with a precision of +/- 0.02mm
or better should be used.
 When two glasses show significant differences in thickness, as determined by
the variation in the known-source glass, they can be eliminated as originating
from the same source.

Density
Density(D) is defined as the ratio of mass(M) to volume(V).
 D = M/V (g/ml)
 Density in glass can be assessed either quantitatively by direct measurement
or qualitatively by simultaneous comparison of two or more specimens.
 Density is a function of chemical composition and atomic arrangement, which
are controlled by the composition of the batch and the cooling history of the
glass, respectively
 Accurate density measurements require a sample that is two to three
millimeters in diameter 21

1. Floatation Method
PRINCIPLE: ‘solid particles will float, sink or remain suspended in a liquid
depending on its density relative to the liquid.’ 
 Standard/reference glass particle is immersed in a mixture of broomform
and bromobenzene
 composition of mixture is adjusted until the glass chip remains suspended
 At this point (match point), the glass chip and the mixture have same
density
  Glass chips of approximately the same size and shape as that of the
standard are added to the liquid
 Liquid is transferred to the density meter

2. Displacement Method
 The mass of the pieces of glass (M) is determined using suitable weight
balance.
 The glass is then added to a graduated cylinder containing a previously
measured volume of water (V1).
 After addition, the volume in the graduated cylinder is recorded again (V2).
 Using the below formula, density of the glass fragment can be determined.
 Density(D)=M/(V2- V1)

Refractive index is defined by Snell’s law as the ratio of the wave velocity in
a vacuum to the wave velocity in the transparent medium.(Stoiber and Morse
1981).
 RI=V VACUUM / V GLASS
 RI is dependent on:
1) the wavelength of light
2) the temperature of the medium
 Refractive index (RI) is unitless
 RI is a function of chemical composition and atomic arrangement 24

Significance of glass and glass fracture evidences

 To aid reconstruction of crime scene
 To provide information about the events which took place and assisting in
proving or disproving a witness’s story.
 Glass fracture patterns are associated with burglary, criminal mischief,
shooting incidents, and fire scenes.
 To evaluate the direction of impact force applied (from inside out or
outside in).
 To calculate approximate force of impact, angle of impact of force.
 To determine the type of glass fracture, the sequence of firing, direction of
firing, and the type of firearm for the projectile holes present.

LESSON: 14 HAIR
HAIR
 
All About Hair 
 
What is a Hair? 
• is a protein filament that grows from follicles found in the dermis, or skin. • is
one of the defining characteristics of mammals. • an important biomaterial
primarily composed of protein, notably keratin.
 
Anatomy of Hair
Hair is composed of three principal parts: 
1. Cuticle – outer coating composed of overlapping scales 
The cuticle varies in: 
-Its scales, 
-How many there are per centimeter,
-How much they overlap, 
-Their overall shape, 
-How much they protrude from the surface 
-Its thickness
-Whether or not it contains pigment. 
 
 Characteristics of the cuticle may be important in distinguishing
between hairs of different species but are often not useful in
distinguishing between different people.
 
2. Cortex – protein-rich structure around the medulla that contains
pigment 
The cortex varies in: 
-Thickness 
-Texture 
-Color 
-Distribution of the cortex is perhaps the most important component
in determining from which individual a human hair may have come. 
 
 Microscopic examination can also reveal the condition and shape of
the root and tip.
 
3. Medulla- central core (may be absent) The structure of hair has been
compared to that of a pencil with the medulla being the lead, the cortex
being the wood and the cuticle being the paint on the outside.
 
The medulla may vary in
     -Thickness 
     -Continuity - one continuous structure or broken into pieces 
     -Opacity - how much light is able to pass through it 
 
 It may also be absent in some species. Like the cuticle, the medulla
can be important for distinguishing between hairs of different
species, but often does not lend much important information to the
differentiation between hairs from different people.
 
Facts About Hair 
 
-Hair is composed of the protein keratin, which is also the primary component of
finger and toe nails. 
Humans develop hair follicles during fetal development, and no new follicles are
produced after birth. 
Hair color is mostly the result of pigments, which are chemical compounds that
reflect certain wavelengths of visible light.
 
-Hair shape (round or oval) and texture (curly or straight) is influenced heavily by
genes. The physical appearance of hair can be affected by nutritional status and
intentional alteration (heat curling, perms, straightening, etc.)
 
-The body area (head, arm, leg, back, etc.) from which a hair originated can be
determined by the sample’s length, shape, size, color, and other physical
characteristics.
 
-In order to test hair evidence for nuclear DNA, the root must be present. The
hair may also be tested using mitochondrial DNA whether or not the root is
present.
 
-The Cuticle of Human Hair is rough --- which is why we use Conditioner
 
-Animals have characteristic cuticle scales that scientists can use to determine the
source of hair evidence. Human, Cat, Dog, and Mouse respectively .
 
Types of Hair 
 
 -Develops on an unborn baby 
 -3 months after baby’s conception 
-Fine and soft 
 -grows all over the body at the same rate 
-Shed about 4 weeks before the baby is due to be born
 -Short, fine, downy, unpigmented hair covering most of the body except the
palms and soles of feet
 - Women normally retain 55% more vellus hair than men 
-Follicle doesn’t have oil glands
- Long, thick pigmented hair found on the scalp, legs, arms & bodies of males &
females
 - Coarser than vellus hair &, with the exception of gray hair, it is pigmented
 -Produced by follicles with sebaceous glands
 
Types of Animal Hairs 
Cat
 Horse
Pig
Human
Dog
Deer
Rabbit
Rat
Human
 
Hair Growth Myths and Facts
-Gray hair is coarser and more resistant than pigmented hair.
 FACT: other than lack of pigment, gray hair is exactly the same as pigmented
hair. It is not resistant because it is gray, & is not more resistant than the
pigmented hair on the same person’s head
 - Amount of natural curl is determined by racial background. FACT: anyone of
any race can have straight or extremely curly hair
-Clipping, shaving, trimming & cutting makes hair grow faster
FACT: have no effect on hair growth 
 -Scalp massage increases hair growth 
FACT: no evidence to indicate this is true. 
Minoxidil and Finasteride are the only treatments that have been proven to
increase hair growth and are approved for that purpose by the FDAS.
  Hair with round cross-section is straight; hair with oval cross-section is wavy;
hair with flat cross-section is curly
 FACT: cross-sections of straight hair tend to be round and curlier hair tends
to be more oval, but cross-sections of hair can be almost any shape, including
triangular; the shape of the cross-section does not always relate to the amount of
curl or the shape of the follicle

HISTORY OF HAIR ANALYSIS

Investigators recognized the importance of analysis of hair as trace evidence in
criminal investigations in the late 1800s. The case of the murder of the Duchesse
de Praeslin in Paris in 1847 is said to have involved the investigation of hairs
found at the scene. A classic 1883 text on forensic science, The Principles and
Practice of Medical Jurisprudence by Alfred Swaine Taylor and Thomas
Stevenson, contains a chapter on using hair in forensic investigations. It includes
drawings of human hairs under magnification. The various parts of human hair
are identified. The book also references cases in which hair was used as evidence
in England. In 1910, a comprehensive study of hair titled Le Poil de l’Homme et
des Animaux (The Hair of Man and Animals) was published by the French forensic
scientists Victor Balthazard and Marcelle Lambert.

This text includes numerous microscopic studies of hairs from most animals. The
use of the comparison microscope to perform side-by-side analysis of hairs
collected from a crime scene and hairs from a suspect or victim first occurred in
1934 by Dr. Sydney Smith. This method of comparison helped solve the murder
of an eight-year-old girl. Further advances in hair analysis continued throughout
the 20th century as technological advances allowed for comparison of hairs
through chemical methods. Today, hair analysis includes neutron activation
analysis and DNA fingerprinting and is considered a standard tool in trace
evidence analysis.

THE FUNCTION OF HAIR

All mammals have hair. Its main purpose is to regulate body temperature to keep
the body warm by insulating it. It is also used to decrease friction, to protect
against sunlight, and to act as a sense organ.

In many mammals, hair can be very dense, and it is then referred to as fur. Hair
works as a temperature regulator in association with muscles in the skin. If the
outside temperature is cold, these muscles pull the hair strands upright, creating
pockets that trap air. This trapped air provides a warm, insulating layer next to
the skin.

In humans, body hair is mostly reduced; it does not play as large a role in
temperature regulation as it does in other animals. When humans are born, they
have about 5 million hair follicles, only 2 percent of which are on the head. This is
the largest number of hair follicles a human will ever have. As a human ages, the
density of hair decreases. 

THE STRUCTURE OF HAIR

A hair consists of two parts: a follicle and a shaft.

The follicle is a club-shaped structure in the skin. At the end of the follicle is a
network of blood vessels that supply nutrients to feed the hair and help it grow.
This is called the papilla. Surrounding the papilla is a bulb. A sebaceous gland,
which secretes oil that helps  keep the hair conditioned, is associated with the
bulb. The erector muscle that causes the hair to stand upright attaches to the
bulb. Nerve cells wind around the follicle and stimulate the erector muscle in
response to changing environmental conditions.  The hair shaft is composed of
the protein keratin, which is produced in the skin. Keratin makes hair both strong
and flexible. Like all proteins, keratin is made up of a chain of amino acids that
forms a helical, or spiral, shape. These helices are connected by strong bonds
between amino acids. These bonds make hair strong.

HAIR FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY 

Hair varies from region to region on the body of the same person. Forensic
scientists distinguish six types of hair on the human body:
(1) head hair
(2) eyebrows and eyelashes
(3) beard and mustache hair
(4) underarm hair
(5) auxiliary or body hair
(6) pubic hair.

Each hair type has its own shape and characteristics. One of the ways in which
hairs from the different parts of the body are distinguished is their cross-sectional
shape.

Head hair is generally circular or elliptical in cross section.

Eyebrows and eyelashes are also circular but often have tapering ends.

Beard hairs tend to be thick and triangular.

Body hair can be oval or triangular, depending on whether the body region has
been regularly shaved. Pubic hair tends to be oval or triangular.

USING HAIR IN AN INVESTIGATION 

Whenever two objects are in contact, some transfer of material will occur. This is
known as Locard’s exchange principle. It is the fundamental reasoning behind
the use of trace evidence in forensic investigations. If a person is at a crime scene,
he or she will leave some trace of his or her presence Behind, or pick up some
trace evidence from the crime scene. One of the major examples of trace
evidence is hair.

When investigators enter a crime scene, they collect trace evidence, including
hair. Hair can be collected from evidence by plucking, shaking, and scraping
surfaces. It can also be collected by placing tape over a surface so that the hair
adheres to it. When surfaces are large, they can be vacuumed. The material that is
filtered into the canister can be examined for hair and other trace particles.
Investigators are always careful to prevent cross-contamination of evidence by
inadvertently transferring hair from one object to another. If a large number of
hairs are collected from a victim or a crime scene, an investigator will compare
the sample with hair taken from the six major body regions of the victim or
suspect(s). An initial analysis is performed using a low-power compound
microscope to determine whether the hair is human or animals. A comparison of
some general physical characteristics of hair from different races.
LESSON: 15 ULTRAVIOLET, FIBER, TAPE, IMPRESSIONS AND PAINT
Ultraviolet, Fiber, Tape, Impressions and Paint

Ultraviolet (UV) light is a type of electromagnetic radiation that is all

around us even though our eyes can't detect it. Our bodies use it to make vitamin
D, but too much exposure can cause painful burns and even cancer. Although UV
light can be dangerous, it is also very valuable and is used in many ways. UV light
is used to identify biological materials, like blood, at crime scenes and in places
where sanitation is important. Because it can kill viruses and bacteria, it is also
used to sterilize medical and biological research facilities and to sanitize much of
our food and water.
Ultraviolet light is one type of electromagnetic wave. Electromagnetic
waves are different than waves on a string or waves that you see in water
because they don't need anything to travel through; they are waves of pure
energy and because of this, they can travel through empty space. They also move
really quickly, traveling through space at the speed of light. All visible colors of
light, as well as microwaves, X-rays, and radio waves, are also electromagnetic
waves. The only difference between these types of electromagnetic waves is their
frequency and wavelength. Ultraviolet waves, with wavelengths from 40-400
nanometers (nm), are those that fall between visible light and X rays on the
electromagnetic spectrum. Because ultraviolet light has a frequency higher than
that of visible light, it carries more energy and has the ability to penetrate our
skin. Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light can cause sunburns and DNA
damage, which can contribute to the development of skin cancer.
Types and Sources of UV Light
The sun is our primary natural source of UV radiation. Artificial sources
include tanning booths, black lights, germicidal lamps, mercury vapor lamps,
halogen lights, high-intensity discharge lamps, fluorescent and incandescent
sources, and some types of lasers. The UV spectrum is divided into vacuum UV
(40-190 nm), far UV (190-220 nm), UVC (220-290 nm), UVB (290-320 nm), and
UVA (320-400 nm). The highest energy forms of UV light (Vacuum UV, Far UV,
and UVC) are almost completely absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere in the
ozone layer. However, UVB and UVA rays do penetrate the ozone layer. UVB is
typically the most destructive form of UV radiation because it has enough energy
to damage cellular DNA yet not enough to be completely absorbed by the
atmosphere. Humans need to be exposed to some UVB rays so that we can
produce vitamin D, a critical nutrient for bone production and repair. However,
overexposure to UV light can cause sunburn, cataracts, and eventually lead to the
development of skin cancer. UVA is the most commonly encountered type of UV
light and also the least harmful. UVA exposure causing tanning of the skin
initially, followed by sunburn after prolonged exposure. Ozone in the atmosphere
absorbs very little UVA radiation, and it is present even on cloudy days. UVA is
also needed by humans for synthesis of vitamin D. However, just like UVB,
overexposure to UVA has been associated with toughening and wrinkling of the
skin, suppression of the immune system, cataract formation, and skin cancer.

Fiber
A fiber is the smallest unit of a textile material that has a length many times
greater than its diameter. Fibers can occur naturally as plant and animal fibers,
but they can also be man-made. A fiber can be spun with other fibers to form a
yarn that can be woven or knitted to form a fabric. The type and length of fiber
used, the type of spinning method, and the type of fabric construction all affect
the transfer of fibers and the significance of fiber associations. This becomes very
important when there is a possibility of fiber transfer between a suspect and a
victim during the commission of a crime.
 Fibers are considered a form of trace evidence that can be transferred
from the clothing of a suspect to the clothing of a victim during the commission
of a crime.

Types of Fiber

Natural Fibers/Cotton fibers

Many different natural fibers originating from plants and animals are used
in the production of fabric. Cotton fibers are the plant fibers most commonly
used in textile materials, with the type of cotton, fiber length, and degree of twist
contributing to the diversity of these fibers. Processing techniques and color
applications also influence the value of cotton fiber identifications.

(Cotton fibers)

Other plant fibers used in the production of textile materials include

flax (linen), ramie, sisal, jute, hemp, kapok, and coir. The identification of less
common plant fibers at a crime scene or on the clothing of a suspect or victim
would have increased significance.

(Flax fibers viewed with polarized light)

Animal Fibers
The animal fiber most frequently used in the production of textile materials
is wool, and the most common wool fibers originate from sheep. The end use of
sheep’s wool often dictates the fineness or coarseness of woolen fibers: Finer
woolen fibers are used in the production of clothing, whereas coarser fibers are
found in carpet. Fiber diameter and degree of scale protrusion of the fibers are
other important characteristics. Although sheep’s wool is most common,
woolen fibers from other animals may also be found. These include camel, alpaca,
cashmere, mohair, and others. The identification of less common animal fibers at
a crime scene or on the clothing of a suspect or victim would have increased
significance.

Man-Made Fibers
More than half of all fibers used in the production of textile materials are
man-made. Some man-made fibers originate from natural materials such as
cotton or wood; others originate from synthetic materials. Polyester and nylon
fibers are the most commonly encountered man-made fibers, followed by
acrylics, rayons, and acetates. There are also many other less common man-made
fibers. The amount of production of a particular man-made fiber and its end use
influences the degree of rarity of a given fiber.

(Cross section of man-made fibers)

The shape of a man-made fiber can determine the value placed on that
fiber. The cross section of a man-made fiber can be manufacturer-specific: Some
cross sections are more common than others, and some shapes may only be
produced for a short period of time. Unusual cross sections encountered through
examination can add increased significance to a fiber association.

Cross-sectional views of nylon carpet fibers as seen with a scanning electron

microscope (SEM)
Fiber v2.0
Fibers are threadlike elements from fabric or other materials such as carpet.
Most are easily identifiable under a microscope. Fibers fall into three
classifications: natural (animal or plant fibers like wool, cotton or silk), synthetic
(completely manmade products including polyester and nylon) and
manufactured (containing natural materials that are reorganized to create fibers
such as rayon).
Fibers are useful in crime scene investigation because their origins can be
identified. A carpet fiber on a person’s shoe can indicate the individual’s
presence at a crime scene. However, fibers are very mobile and can become
airborne, get brushed off or fall from clothing. This mobility makes timely
collection crucial to prevent loss of material or cross-contamination.

Collection 
Fibers cling to other fibers and hair, but may be easily brushed off. When
approaching a scene, investigators will attempt to pinpoint the most probable
locations for deposited fibers. For example, the carpeting under and surrounding
a victim’s body, clothing from the victim or a suspected weapon are likely
places to find fibers.
Common collection methods include individual fiber collection using
tweezers or vacuuming an area and sorting the materials at the laboratory. Trace
evidence can also be gathered by tape lifting; however, this is not ideal due to
the destructive nature of adhesives.
Samples that potentially contain fibers should be separately bagged to
prevent cross-contamination.
Tape
Tape is commonly encountered in our environment. Often times we see
tape as evidence in crimes committed against individuals such as kidnappings
and homicides.  The analysis of tape includes a physical match examination;
determining if torn or cut pieces of tape could be directly associated back to a
known roll of tape and then possibly followed by an examination of the physical
and chemical characteristics of the tapes if a physical match examine is not
possible.  Duct tape, medical tape, electrical tape, filament tape, scotch tape, and
masking tape could all be submitted to the laboratory for a tape examination.
When comparing two tapes we look at the various components that make
up the tape including the adhesive and backing film.  If the tape is a cloth
reinforced tape, like duct tape, then a fiber examination would also be part of the
tape examination.
Components of Tape

IMPRESSIONS
When a crime is committed, the criminal always leaves traces of him or
herself at the scene. Impression evidence is just what it says it is: evidence that
leaves an impression. The impression is from some part of the criminal, such as
his shoes, his tires, his fingers, or a tool or instrument that he used, and it is left in
some material at the scene, like soil, dust, or cement.
Impression evidence is created when two objects come in contact with enough
force to cause an "impression." Typically impression evidence is either two-
dimensional — such as a fingerprint — or three-dimensional — such as the
marks on a bullet caused by the barrel of a firearm.
Pattern evidence is simply impression evidence that forms some kind of pattern.
For example, a shoe print may be characteristic of only a specific brand of shoe,
such as Nike. If a suspect is caught, the pattern on the bottom of his shoes can be
compared to any footprints found at the scene. Or if you find footprints on the
scene but can't find your suspect, there may be a database of various footprints
on file that were created by specific brands of shoes. The footprints at the scene
can then be compared to examples from the database, giving you more
information about the kind of shoes the suspect was wearing. The size of the
footprint itself may also give clues about the suspect's shoe size.
Gathering & Analyzing
1. First step in managing a scene that has impression evidence is to secure
and restrict the area. This is why our officers at the beginning of the lesson
had to keep the neighbors out. Everyone but the crime scene professionals
should be kept away from the scene. When these professionals secure and
restrict a crime scene, they avoid the confusion of adding additional
 footprints, fingerprints, or other impression evidence, and they avoid
accidentally altering the scene.
2. Photographing the general area in detail as well as any specific evidence
that is found, such as a footprint or fingerprint, before it is altered or
collected.
There are two main types of impression evidence you're likely to find at a crime
scene: two-dimensional and three-dimensional.
Two (2D) dimensional  impressions illustrating length and width, are usually
found indoors on surfaces like counter tops, glass, paper, cardboard, or ceramic
and waxed floors
Three (3D) dimensional  impressions that have 3 measurements, length, width
and depth, are usually discovered outdoors in surfaces like dirt, sand, clay, mud,
tar, or snow. 

PAINT
Painted surfaces are everywhere and the wide variety of layered colors,
lusters and types often make paint high-value as evidence. For example, paint
transferred when one vehicle hits another vehicle, a pedestrian or a building can
be matched to potentially identify the car in question. In a property crime where
a tool is used to break into a building, paint transferred to or from the tool can
connect the tool to the location. Analyzing automotive paint can identify the
make, model and sometimes the year of a vehicle.
Paint is a pigmented polymer that is applied and adheres to various
surfaces. It is possible to examine microscopically the color and shape of paint
strips or other samples, as well as to determine through the use of gas
chromatography.

Collection: To collect paint, investigators document the scene, then peel off, or
excise, small amounts of paint from the source, being careful to gather all layers.
Samples as small as one square millimeter can be used for testing. For a car crash
scene, paint samples from the point of contact would be photographed, collected
and stored in such a way as to protect the edges for further examination. This is
particularly important when examining for fracture matches.
Preserve Paint Evidence,
it is important to start with securing the scene of the crime. Prior to the
collection of a paint sample, the area containing the sample should be
photographed without disrupting the evidence. Any disruption to the crime scene
area could potentially contaminate the paint evidence. Investigators can then
proceed to collect the paint sample, typically by carefully scraping or peeling the
paint from the surface area where it was located. Tools such as tweezers might be
used during the collection process.
Until the paint evidence can be forensically examined, it should be carefully
preserved so that it remains unaltered while it is transferred from the crime scene
to the laboratory. All paint samples should be kept in separate containers. If paint
evidence is found on clothing, it should not be removed. Rather, the clothing
should be rolled up in paper and sent to the lab.
Once in the lab, the examination will begin. Investigators will look for several
things, such as the edges of the paint sample, and whether or not there are
multiple layers of paint present beyond the surface layer. In our example story,
this could help police determine if the culprit's car is newer or older, as a paint
chip from a car that has been painted several times over the years is likely to have
multiple paint layers.
Paint samples are typically collected by scraping small sections down to the metal
or original surface or using tweezers to collect chips already dislodged.

LESSON: 16 MACRO-ETCHING EXAMINATION

Macro-Etching Examination
INTRODUCTION
Macro-etching, also known as deep etching, involves etching specimens
prepared with a suitable acid or reagent for macro structural examination at low
magnifications and rating by a grades series of photographs showing the
incidence of certain conditions such as: cracks, pipe, center voids, center
unsoundness, pinholes, porosity, white band, chill structure, dendritic structure,
inclusions, hydrogen flakes, segregation, banding, grain size, mold slag, and other
discontinuities or defects such as laps and seams.
Other applications of macro etching include:
-Development of grain flow in a forged part or fastener, which is a critical
property for the integrity of the forging.
-Study of weld structures, definition of weld penetration, dilution of filler metal by
base metals, entrapment of flux, porosity, and cracks in weld and heat affect
zones, etc.
-Evaluation of heat treated parts to determine locations of hard or soft spots,
tong marks, quench cracks, case depth in induction hardened or carburized parts,
and effectiveness of stop-off coatings.
-Evaluation of machined parts for grinding cracks in tools and dies.
Procedure used to perform etch tests and the results derived from the test
1. The etch test consists of cutting a specimen transverse to the weld axis,
applying an etching solution and inspecting the exposed surface. This form
of destructive testing is an excellent method of determining the soundness

of weld metal and the metallurgical structure produced by the weld.

2. The test outlines or defines the weld structure in relation to the base
metal. The etched surface provides a contrast between the weld, heat
affected zone and base metal. This form of testing is commonly referred to

as metallographic examination.
3. The macro etch test is commonly used to qualify filet wild procedures and
welders in this test, the coupon is cut transverse to the weld axis in one or

more locations.

4. The weld specimens are ground smooth in the case of carbon steel, the
surface can be etched with a solution of one part ammonium persulphate
and nine parts water or a solution of diluted hydrochloric acid.

5. Safety precautions must be considered when working with etchants such as

hydrochloric acid Some acids can cause serious burns through contact with
the skin. The type of etchant will depend on the metal.
6. The etchant is normally applied at room temperature using a cotton swab
or similar applicator Etching begins the instant the solution is applied.
However, it may be necessary to continue rubbing the surface until there is
a clear definition of the weld structure.

7. After the surface is completely sched, it is washed in clean water and dried.
When handing the specimen, the tester must be careful not to touch the
etched surface. The etched surface can be preserved by applying a thin
coat of clear lacquer

8. The macro specimen is inspected by looking at the etched surface without

magnification or with magnification less than ten X.
 The X means the number of times larger the area appears under a
magnifying lens. Ten X means that the area will appear ten times larger

than normal.

9. The etched surface is examined to determine weld soundness.

Discontinuities such as cracks, porosity, incomplete fusion slag inclusions
and lack of penetration are evaluated
The number of weld passes is also visible which helps determine where the
problems occur and how the procedure can be modified to solve them.

10.Published welding codes provide a standard of acceptability for evaluation

of macro etch specimens to qualify welding procedures and welders
 The results are recorded on qualification reports of the quality control

documents.

11.The micro specimen is inspected by examining the etched surface through

a microscope with a magnification greater than ten X.

12.The micro specimen is prepared similar to the macro specimen However

the surface is carefully ground and polished to a minor-like finish to

remove all scratches.

13.A metallographic etching solution is applied to the surface. Nital solution is

commonly used on carton steel which consists of 5% nitric acid in methyl
alcohol.
 14.The etched surface is then viewed through a microscope at high
magnifications. Usually a picture (micrograph) is produced. The
metallurgical structure of the weld metal, fusion zone and heat affected

zone are analyzed for characteristics such as grain size, carbon content, and
ferrite content.
15.Few codes require this detailed an examination However, it is helpful in
evaluating solutions to welding problems on ferrous and nonferrous
metals. The micro examination requires a trained metallographic with skill

in metal preparation knowledge of the test procedure and necessary

experience to interpret results.

LESSON: 17 LIQUOR TEST

CHAPTER 17
LIQUOR TEST
Liquor - is an alcoholic drink produced by distillation of grains, fruits,
or vegetables that have already gone through alcoholic fermentation. 
Alcohol - a colorless volatile flammable liquid that is produced by the natural
fermentation of sugars and is the intoxicating constituent of wine, beer, spirits,
and other drinks, and is also used as an industrial solvent and as fuel

WHAT DOES THE ALCOHOL DO TO OUR BODY?

Brain:
Alcohol interferes with the brain’s communication pathways, and can affect the
way the brain looks and works. These disruptions can change mood and
behavior, and make it harder to think clearly and move with coordination.  

Heart:
Drinking a lot over a long time or too much on a single occasion can damage the
heart, causing problems including:

 Cardiomyopathy – Stretching and drooping of heart muscle

 Arrhythmias – Irregular heart beat
 Stroke
 High blood pressure  

Liver:
Heavy drinking takes a toll on the liver, and can lead to a variety of problems and
liver inflammations including:

 Steatosis, or fatty liver

 Alcoholic hepatitis
 Fibrosis
 Cirrhosis

Pancreas:
Alcohol causes the pancreas to produce toxic substances that can eventually lead
to pancreatitis, a dangerous inflammation and swelling of the blood vessels in the
pancreas that prevents proper digestion. 

HOW LONG DOES THIS LIQUOR STAY IN BODY?

Blood: Alcohol is eliminated from the bloodstream at about 0.015 per hour.
Alcohol can show up in a blood test for up to 12 hours.
Urine: Alcohol can be detected in urine for up 3 to 5 days via the ethyl
glucuronide (EtG) test or 10 to 12 hours via the traditional method.
WHY A LAW ENFORCER DOES PERFORMS A BLOOD ALCOHOL TEST OR
LIQUOR TEST?
Police Officer may perform a blood alcohol test if he suspected that an individual
are drunk while driving and/or have symptoms of intoxication. These include:
 Difficulty with balance and coordination
 Slurred speech
 Slowed reflexes
 Nausea and vomiting
 Mood changes
 Poor judgment

Laboratory Investigation
LIQUOR TEST
It is the metric used to measure the amount of alcohol in a person’s
bloodstream at a given time. This alcohol content can be determined by testing
the person’s breath, blood, urine, or saliva, with breath testing being the most
common method of testing as practiced by law enforcement.
BAC Breath Test
Blood alcohol concentration or BAC Breath testing is the most common
method used by law enforcement to estimate BAC because breath analysis
devices, or breathalyzers, are lightweight, portable, and provide immediate
results.
A breath alcohol test determines how much alcohol is in your blood. The test
measures the amount of alcohol in the air you breathe out (exhale).
Factors That Affect BAC:
Your weight. The heavier you are, the more water is in your body. The more
water, the more the alcohol gets diluted.
Your gender. Alcohol doesn’t affect men and women the same. Men have
higher levels of a stomach enzyme that helps break down alcohol, so they
process it faster. Women typically have less water and more fat. Hormonal
changes in women also can affect the BAC.
Age. As you get older, the same drink boosts your BAC faster than in a younger
person.
Drink strength. Even different drinks in the same family, like two different beers,
can have different amounts of alcohol.
Food. When you eat before and while you drink, your BAC goes up more slowly.
Sex. BAC generally goes up more quickly in women than in men.
Weight. Usually, the less you weigh, the faster your BAC ramps up.
Medicines and drugs. Legal and illegal drugs can raise your BAC more quickly or
create dangerous side effects.
Race and ethnicity. Your genes affect how your liver handles alcohol, which
means your race or ethnicity can also play a role. Asians and Native Americans
tend to process alcohol more slowly, so their BAC goes up more quickly.

How the Test is Performed:

Manual
The most common manual test includes a balloon and a glass tube filled with
yellow crystals. You blow into the balloon and release the air into the tube. The
bands of crystals in the tube change color from yellow to green depending on
how much alcohol is in your system.
Electronic
Most police use an electronic device about the size of a walkie-talkie. You
blow into a mouthpiece, and it gives an immediate reading. You may be asked to
repeat this a few times so the officer can get an average reading. It takes about a
minute, and it doesn’t hurt.
BREATHALYZER
BAC Blood Test
Consent to have your blood drawn and tested is usually required, and refusing
to take a blood test can have significant legal consequences, including
suspension of driving privileges.
A blood alcohol test measures the amount of alcohol (ethanol) in your body.
Alcohol is quickly absorbed into the blood and can be measured within minutes
of having an alcoholic drink. The amount of alcohol in the blood reaches its
highest level about an hour after drinking.

A legal reason can be a police officer’s suspicion that you’re driving

drunk or drinking under age. It’s also common after a car crash to see if alcohol
played a role. Usually, you’d take a breath alcohol test on the spot.If you refuse,
you may be required to get a blood alcohol test.
 Medical reasons include if you come to a hospital or the ER passed out,
confused, or showing other signs of heavy drinking. It helps doctors know
what’s happening and how best to care for you. Doctors often do a breath test,
but sometimes will draw your blood instead.

BAC Urine Test

Urine tests are less accurate than breath and blood tests, and tend to be used
only when other tests are not available. Urine testing is also considered an
intrusive testing method, similar to blood tests.
A person's urine is tested for BAC by correlating the urine-to-alcohol ratio
detected within the person's system with the BAC. The ratio of 1.33:1 urine
alcohol to BAC is most often used. However, this method is considered quite
subjective.

Normal level of Alcohol in Urine

The average amount of alcohol excreted in urine was 0.29 g (S.D. 0.119), 0.44
g (S.D. 0.246), and 1.00 g (S.D. 0.427) after the consumption of 0.51, 0.68 and 0.85
g ethanol/kg respectively.
BAC TYPICAL RESULTS ARE:
Sober: 0.0 percent BAC
Legally intoxicated: .08 percent BAC
Very impaired: .08–0.40 percent BAC. At this blood alcohol level, you may have
difficulty walking and speaking. Other symptoms may include confusion, nausea,
and drowsiness.
At risk for serious complications: Above .40 percent BAC. At this blood alcohol
level, you may be at risk for coma or death.

LESSON 18: TOXICOLOGY

FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY
Forensic toxicology is the analysis of biological samples for the presence of
toxins, including drugs. The toxicology report can provide key information as to
the type of substances present in an individual and if the amount of those
substances is consistent with a therapeutic dosage or is above a harmful level.
 
The forensic toxicologist deals mainly with providing information to the
legal system on the effects of drugs and poisons. They are often very senior
toxicologists who have gained a lot of experience in other areas of toxicology
first, such as analytical chemistry.
Having gathered and evaluated the available toxicological evidence, they
may attend court as an expert witness to describe and explain the evidence
relating to the case. These can range from simple ‘drink-driving’ cases to fatal
accident, suicide and murder investigations, where deliberate or accidental
poisoning is suspected.
Forensic toxicologists use modern analytical procedures to isolate, identify
and quantify drugs, endogenous compounds and poisonous substances in
forensic samples. Often, only very small quantities of sample can be retrieved
from the crime scene or the mortuary, and the sample matrix can vary widely, to
include body fluids, plant materials and drug paraphernalia. They must assess the
significance of these analytical data so as to identify relationships between
exposure levels and clinical response. It is necessary to understand how the
metabolism of a chemical can affect its concentration and pharmacological or
toxic effects. It is also important to consider factors such as drug-drug
interactions, tolerance, age related effects, post-mortem redistribution and
differences between individuals. It can be necessary for forensic toxicologists to
conclude a probable cause of death in post-mortem cases.
What types of samples are collected in forensic toxicology?
The most common sample types used by forensic toxicologists are blood,
urine, and hair, as these can be easily collected in a non-invasive manner and
provide a great deal of information regarding both the historical and present
influence of various substances.
Post-mortem sample collection also frequently includes an examination of
the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, which is likely to contain evidence of
consumed drugs or toxins that are yet to be digested. The liver, spleen, vitreous
of the eye, and brain may also hold valuable information regarding the cause of
death.
Forensic Toxicology Applications
While there are many uses for forensic toxicology testing, the most familiar
one to most people is likely to be drug and alcohol testing. This type of testing is
commonly performed in the transportation industry and in workplaces. Another
use is for drug overdoses, whether these are intended or accidental. People who
drive with a blood alcohol concentration over the accepted legal limit can also be
assessed through toxicology testing. Another application of forensic toxicology
relates to sexual assault that involves the use of drugs. Various drugs are used
today for the purposes of rendering the victim unable to fight the attacker, who
then proceeds to sexually assault the victim. Through toxicology testing, a victim
can find out what drug was given and can then be treated accordingly.
There are a lot of substances and poisons in our world – many of which
impact how we function in work and society. For some people, these substances
can influence their death. Fortunately, forensic toxicology testing allows forensic
scientists to identify substances and determine a pattern of use. In this way, a
forensic toxicologist can provide closure on the ‘what if’ of a person’s drug
habits or perhaps some mystery surrounding their death.
 

LESSON: 19 DNA ANALYSIS

DNA ANALYSIS
What is DNA?
 Simply put DNA is life blueprint a molecule that encodes genetic
instructions used in the development of all known living organisms and
viruses.
 It's a nucleic acid that in most cases are double stranded helix is consisting
of two long biopolymers males’ simpler units called nucleotides.
  DNA is tailor-made for biological information storage which is why it's so
useful in the world of forensic science so how is it utilized.
DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Located in CHROMOSOMES in the nucleus of cells
What is a chromosome?
 Tightly packed genetic information

Where do we get them from?

 One from each parent! Genes – portions of DNA that code for traits and
functions 35,000 genes in human body

DNA is a POLYMER made up of nucleotides

Bases (A, G, T, C)
 Adenine (A)
 Guanine (G)
 Pyrimidines Thymine (T)
 Cytosine (C)

What is important about base pairs?

 Can predict sequence of one strand based on the sequence of the other.
 Responsible for Replication and Transcription Repair of damaged DNA

Order in the Court!

 The specific sequence of nucleotides of all human beings is 99.9% the
SAME!!It is that 0.1% difference that makes each person unique

How Does it work?

 Any organism can be identified by examination of DNA sequences unique
to the specific species.
 To identify individuals, forensic scientist scan 13 DNA regions (loci) and
create a DNA profile for that individual (DNA fingerprint)
 There’s a very slim chance that another individual has the same DNA
profile for a specific set of 13 loci's

How is DNA typing done?

  Only 1/10 of a single percent of DNA (about 3 million base pairs)
differs between individuals.
 Scientists use these regions to generate a DNA profile of an
individual using samples from blood, bone, and hair.
 In criminal cases, samples are collected from the crime scene
evidence, and a suspect, extracting DNA and analyzing it for a set of
specific DNA markers
 Markers are found in DNA by making small pieces of DNA (probes)
that will seek out and bind to a complementary DNA sequence in the
sample

DNA Typing Cont’d

 The DNA profiles are then compared to determine if the suspect

sample matches the evidence sample
 If the sample profiles do not match, the suspect was not part of the
crime
 If the patterns match the suspect most likely was a part of the crime
 The more probes used in DNA analysis, the greater the odds for a
unique pattern and definite match. Four to six probes are
recommended.

Effectiveness of DNA

 DNA Identification is quite effective when used correctly.

 Portions of DNA sequence that vary the most among humans MUST
be used
 Portions must also be large enough to factor in the fact that human
mating is not random

Examples of use of DNA In forensics

 Identify potential suspects whose DNA may match evidence left at

crime scene
 Exonerate persons wrongly accused of crimes
 Identify crime and catastrophe victims
 Establish paternity and other family relationships
DNA Technology

 CODIS, which stands for Combined DNA Index System, is a

program which consists of many databases that have DNA profiles
useful for the criminal justice system.

 The NDIS, or National DNA Index System, is the part of CODIS

that contains the DNA profile at a national, state, and local level and
is accessible to law enforcement all over the country

 The DNA types stored in this system consist of stretches of a

chromosome that are highly variable between individuals. These are
usually STR tetramers, or a sequence of four nucleotides which
repeats many times.

DNA as Evidence

 DNA is easily contaminated due to the sensitivity and fragility of

samples
 Must be recognized that the issue of DNA contamination was not
fully understood in the past, older cases may be linked to samples
which could yield misleading results
 Many guidelines for handling DNA samples within the lab before,
during, and after processing.
 Degradation is also a common concern with DNA samples
 Collection and storage must be carefully monitored to prevent
bacteria growth
 Evidence collected for the purpose of blood type testing may be
stored according to that type of test and may limit chances of
testing DNA in the sample
 In some cases, DNA has been successfully extracted and analyzed
from a moldy sample with the help of PCR technology.

Laws related to DNA Technology

 With the recent advancements in DNA, many laws have been issued
in regard to testing and use
  Although DNA samples can last many years, and sometimes even
decades, statutes of limitation are in place and vary state to state
 A statute of limitation limits the amount of time between a crime
and a conviction
 Many law makers are now realizing that theses statutes of limitation
are becoming obsolete due to the reliability of a properly stored
DNA sample
 With the realization that DNA databases lead to convictions, laws
were put in place to ensure their continued success
 All states require at least some convicted offenders to provide a DNA
sample to incorporate their profile into the database
 Federal government now requires samples from those convicted of
Federal or military crimes

Equipment for DNA Analysis

 Thermocycler- also known as a thermal cycler, it is used to amplify

segments of DNA via PCR
 ABI 310 Genetic Analyzer- used for STR genotyping

DNA analysis consists of traditional and specialized techniques.

 Traditional Techniques: Restriction fragment length polymorphism

(RFLP), and short tandem repeat (STR) analysis.
 Specialized Techniques: mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis, Y-
marker analysis, single nucleotide polymorphism, or SNP.

(RFLP) Restriction fragment length polymorphism

 Characterize fragments and calculate the statistical probability that

two people could have the same fragment sequence
 Length differences associated with relatively long repeating DNA
strands are called restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP)
and form the basis for one of the first DNA typing procedures.
 Typically, a core sequence consists of 15 to 35 bases in length and
repeats itself up to a thousand times.
  The key to understanding DNA typing lies in the knowledge that
numerous possibilities exist for the number of times a particular
sequence of base letters can repeat itself on a DNA strand.

Brief History of DNA Matching

 1970s – HLA Testing

 HLA inherited from both parents. Used for paternity testing and biological
relationships. High exclusion rate of 80%

 1980s- DNA Testing Using RFLP Technique

 First genetic test using DNA. Higher exclusion rate of 99.99%

 1990s - DNA Testing Using PCR Technology

 DNA tests made more easy and quick

 2007s and beyond – Ancestry Research

 Y-STR and mtDNA used for male and female line respectively

Admissibility of DNA Evidence In American Courts

 November 1987 - Tommy Lee Andrews was one of the firsts convicted
using DNA tests. Rape Conviction
 State v. Woodall – West Virginia Supreme Court first high court to rule on
the admissibility of DNA evidence
 People vs. Castro – Court certifications, accreditations and standardization
guidelines were established (Chain of Custody in Courts)

Forensic DNA analysis

 Is a multi-step process starting with removing the DNA from the biological
material that is submitted to a lab.
 This can be saliva blood semen hair skin cells or any biological material
containing cells with a nucleus.

Steps for the process of DNA Analysis

Extracting - the DNA from the nucleus a process called extraction where cells are
broken open using a combination of chemicals and heat to release the contents
of the nucleus where the DNA is stored the materials then go through a cleanup
process so the sample is pure DNA.

Quantitation - is important because the next step requires a specific amount of

DNA to achieve optimal results.  Too much or too little requires the concentration
to be adjusted before the next step.
Amplification - process where specific regions inside the DNA molecule or
copied during the amplification process. Fluorescent tags are placed on regions
of the DNA which will be used in the last step.
Detection – process where our copied fragments of DNA are separated by size
and are passed through a laser when this laser hits the fluorescent tags we added
earlier a camera determines what color the tag is and how much there is.
What results is a DNA profile set of numbers at the different regions tested
called a locus one of the numbers comes from the mother the other from the
father linking the subject to each one.

Currently DNA testing gives results at 16 different areas results at all 16 areas is
considered to be a full profile if an individual's DNA profile matches at all 16
areas to a DNA profile developed from evidence at a crime scene then law
enforcement can use that data to place the individual at the location.
HISTORY OF FORENSIC DNA ANALYSIS
Forensic DNA analysis  was introduced in the 1980s, and since then evolved into
a powerful tool for practicing paternity testing for children to determine the
parents and in criminal justice to crack the case on crime scenes. What makes
DNA so powerful and useful is because each person’s DNA is different, unless
you are an  identical twin, in that case, your DNA is identical to that of your twin
sibling.

DNA forensics was first reported in 1984 by Dr. Alec Jefferys at the University of
Leicester when he realized that DNA contained sequences that continued to
repeat next to each other. He also figured out that these sequences that were
repeated were different for everyone. After this discovery Dr. Jefferys had paved
the way for the development of identity tests. Later on in 1987 genetic
fingerprinting was made available when Imperial Chemical Industries, a chemical
company in England, started a center that tests blood.

FIRST FEW CASES OF DNA FORENSIC ANALYSIS

Some interesting cases through the years have been from a woman, Anna
Anderson, when she claimed that she was Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna
of Russia. After Anna Anderson passed away, samples of her skin tissues was
stored at a Charlottesville, Virginia hospital. When DNA fingerprinting was
discovered, Anne Anderson’s tissues were tested and proven that she had no
relations to the Romanovs.

The 1987 United States first used DNA testing in the case of Tommy Andrews, a
Florida rapist, who was accused of raping a woman during a burglary. Because of
DNA testing, Tommy Lee Andrews was convicted because of the proven DNA
that matched with the DNA that was collected from the crime scene. Tommy Lee
Andrews was sentenced to 22 years in prison after he was convicted of this crime.

The popular DNA testing became extremely popular in the case of the O.J
Simpson when he was accused of a double murder. O.J Simpson could not be
convicted of the murders because it was said that the laboratory had difficulties,
so the procedure of DNA started to be doubted slightly, but this type of testing
continued to be used in similar cases such as this.

THE ADVANCEMENTS OF DNA TESTING

Although DNA testing started out being tested with blood, DNA can also be
tested from hair, bone, saliva, and semen. In a lot of the older cases, they will use
pieces of bone, hair, or stored skin tissues. Most tests that are done today are
done with saliva, semen, or blood.

As the time has progressed, DNA has grown tremendously. In the United States,
all 50 states have laws that allow DNA testing as well as having over 150 DNA
testing laboratories where they perform thousands of private paternities testing
each year. There have also been many cases that have been solved, as well as
many people that have been proved innocent because of their DNA testing. DNA
can be a unique and helpful tool to have especially when you are trying to find
out information about your past, such as who are your parents, your family
history, or in crime cases.

LESSON: 20 FORENSIC SEROLOGY AND BLOODSTAIN PATTERN

FORENSIC SEROLOGY AND BLOODSTAIN PATTERN
Forensic Serology
Forensic serology is the application of the study of blood, semen, saliva and
other body fluids, to legal matters. The field generally is comprised of the
detection of enzymes and antigens, as in the identification of seminal stains or
blood typing (ABO and secretor status) and DNA typing.
The serology section of a forensic laboratory may deal with any or all of the
following:
• blood typing
• characterization of unknown stains
• blood spatter analysis for crime reconstruction
• paternity testing
• semen identification in sexual assault cases
• DNA typing for identification of victims and suspects

The Composition of Blood

Blood is a mixture of many components:
• cells
• inorganic substances (salts)
• enzymes
• water
• proteins
55 % of blood content is plasma – mostly water and substances dissolved in
it
Most of the solid materials (by weight) are cells
• red blood cells, RBCs (erythrocytes)
• white blood cells (leukocytes)

Forensic Characterization of Bloodstains

Three questions that must be answered by the forensic investigator:
1) Is it blood? Use presumptive tests:
• Kastle-Meyer
• Leucomalachite Green
• Luminol
2) If yes, is it human blood? (Precipitin Test)
3) If yes, can it be associated with an individual? (DNA)

Is It Blood? Presumptive Tests for Blood

Presumptive tests rely on hemoglobin’s ability to catalyze the oxidation of
certain reagents, usually resulting in a color change. Oxidizing agent is usually
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Visible Stains
Kastle Meyer: solution of phenolphthalein is applied to suspected blood
stain, followed by hydrogen peroxide. A bright pink color indicates the presence
of blood.
Leucho-Malachite Green: same procedure as K-M; produces blue-green color
in the presence of blood.
Invisible Stains
Luminol: used for large areas where blood is suspected but not visible. If
blood is present, it will glow. Must be viewed in darkness and photographed
quickly.

Luminol
• Red blood cells contain hemoglobin (Hb) – the protein responsible for
transporting oxygen
• Each Hb contains four iron (Fe) containing hemes
• Luminol reacts with iron

False Positives
Blood is not the only material that will cause presumptive test reagents to change
color.
Horse radish & potatoes can also give positive results (these are unlikely to be at
a crime scene, though).
Luminol can give false positive results when exposed to household bleach, some
metals, and some vegetables.
Blood is the only body fluid that will give a positive reaction.
Positive results must be confirmed with Precipitin Test.
Acid phosphatase (AP) is present in many substances, but it is in especially high
concentrations in seminal fluid.
Some fruit juices, contraceptive creams, and vaginal secretions will also produce a
purple color with AP test.
However, the color change is much slower with these substances.
Semen will produce the color change very rapidly (fresh stains will take ~10
seconds, older stains may take ~30 sec -- and always less than 1 min).
A positive result for AP determines not the presence of AP, but that it is present
at a certain concentration
Confirmatory Test Required
 1) Microscopic visualization of sperm
A normal ejaculate is 2-5ml and contains 100-150 million spermatazoa
2) Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) (a protein found exclusively in seminal
fluid

Confirmatory Tests
Once a presumptive test indicates that a stain may be blood, the serologist must
confirm that it is human blood.
Precipitin test identifies the presence of proteins that are found only in human
blood.
Precipitin Test Procedure
• animal (usually a rat or rabbit) is injected with human blood
• animal’s blood forms antibodies
• antibodies are harvested from animal’s blood serum (“antiserum”)
• in a test tube, an extract from the suspected bloodstain is added to the
antiserum
• if a precipitate forms where the two meet, it is human blood

Blood Typing: Antigens

On the surface of red blood cells are molecules (proteins) called antigens.
Antigens allow a living system to recognize foreign biological substances, such as
infectious agents and allergens.
Antigens also impart specific characteristics to the RBCs. These characteristics can
be partly used to identify individuals.
Human RBCs have many antigens, but the ones most commonly used for blood
typing are Rh & ABO.

Blood Typing
Blood typing involves determination of the antigens present on an individual’s
RBCs.
• type A blood – contain “A” antigen on RBCs
• type B blood – contain “B” antigen on RBCs
• type AB blood – contains both A and B antigens
• type O blood – contain no A or B antigens
• Rh+ blood – contain Rh antigen
• Rh- blood – no Rh antigen
Blood also contains antibodies – proteins that recognize and bind to certain,
specific antigens.
Blood Type Antigens on RBC Antibodies
 A A anti-B
B B anti-A
AB AB none
O none both A & B
A agglutinates with anti-A; B agglutinates with anti-B; AB agglutinates with both
anti-A & anti-B; O will not agglutinate with either serum.
To determine blood type, observe: Does the sample agglutinate in response to
the antiserum added?
Human serum containing specific antibodies can be purchased.
Separately mix a drop of unknown blood sample with drop of each anti-
serum.
Blood Typing Example
A sample of unknown blood is mixed with three antisera samples:
Tube 1 (Anti-A): No reaction
Tube 2 (Anti B): No reaction
Tube 3 (Anti Rh): Cloudy reaction
In terms of the A-B-O and Rh systems, what type blood is the sample?
O positive
The ABO antigens are not confined to RBC; 80% of Americans are
“secretors”, which means that they secrete their ABO antigens into other body
fluids.

Bloodstain Analysis
Categories of Bloodstains:
Passive (dripping)
Transfer (smearing)
Projected
Projected bloodstains occur in shootings, trauma from blunt weapons,
hacking, beating or slashing attacks.

Projected Bloodstain Analysis

Two Important Determinations:
a. direction of spatter
b. angle of impact with surface
sin α = (width drop / length drop)

Forensic Characterization of Semen

Many crimes involve sexual assault. Forensic Investigators may need to search for
semen stains at a crime scene.
Bedding, clothing, towels, carpets, cushions, vehicle seats, etc.
Seminal Fluid contains:
• water, spermatozoa, enzymes, inorganic salts
Presumptive Tests
• UV light (semen fluoresces under UV light)
• Acid Phosphatase (a presumptive test reagent that rapidly turns purple if
AP is present)

Forensic Characterization of Saliva

Saliva is a mixture of many components:
• 99% water
• Mucin (protein helps in swallowing)
• Amylase (enzyme to help digest carbohydrates)
• Buccal cells (good source for DNA)
Adults produce 1.0-1.5 liters of saliva/day. Saliva is not uncommon at crime
scenes, especially those involving sexual assault and bite marks.
A simple test for saliva involves mixing starch, iodine, and a sample of the
presumed saliva together. Starch and iodine are a deep blue color when mixed
together. The amylase breaks down starch, however, and the color fades (takes
about 15 mins @ 37 oC).

Blood Stain Pattern

 Bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA) is the interpretation of bloodstains at a
crime scene in order to recreate the actions that caused the bloodshed. Analysts
examine the size, shape, distribution and location of the bloodstains to form
opinions about what did or did not happen.

BPA uses principles of biology (behavior of blood), physics (cohesion,

capillary action and velocity) and mathematics (geometry, distance, and angle) to
assist investigators in answering questions such as:
 Where did the blood come from?
 What caused the wounds? From what direction was the victim wounded?

 How were the victim(s) and perpetrator(s) positioned?

 What movements were made after the bloodshed?

 How many potential perpetrators were present?

 Does the bloodstain evidence support or refute witness statements?

Because blood behaves according to certain scientific principles, trained

bloodstain pattern analysts can examine the blood evidence left behind [and
draw conclusions as to how the blood may have been shed]. From what may
appear to be a random distribution of bloodstains at a crime scene, analysts can
categorize the stains by gathering information from spatter patterns, transfers,
voids and other marks that assist investigators in recreating the sequence of
events that occurred after bloodshed. This form of physical evidence requires the
analyst to recognize and interpret patterns to determine how those patterns were
created.
BPA provides information not only about what happened, but just as
importantly, what could not have happened. This information can assist the
investigator in reconstructing the crime, corroborating statements from
witnesses, and including or excluding potential perpetrators from the
investigation.

How Bloodstain Evidence is Collected

Bloodstain samples can be collected for BPA by cutting away stained
surfaces or materials, photographing the stains, and drying and packaging
stained objects. The tools for collecting bloodstain evidence usually include high-
quality cameras (still and video), sketching materials, cutting instruments and
evidence packaging.

Documentation of Bloodstain Evidence

The most frequently used method of capturing bloodstains is high-
resolution photography. A scale or ruler is placed next to the bloodstain to
provide accurate measurement and photos are taken from every angle. Video
and sketches of the scene and the blood stains is often used to provide
perspective and further documentation. This is commonly done even if stained
materials or objects are collected intact.
Who Conducts the Analysis
 Bloodstain pattern analysts can be found at all levels of crime scene
investigation: from law enforcement to laboratory staff. Analysts investigate and
study patterns at the scene and often screen and profile the blood in the
laboratory as well. It has become more common for bloodstain pattern analysts
to have a degree in math or a physical science, such as biology, chemistry or
physics. This helps the analyst to corroborate findings from other scientific
disciplines including pathology, toxicology and serology/DNA. Analysts are
typically required to undergo formal training in blood pattern analysis,
accompanied by competency testing and periodic continuing education.
Certification is offered by International Association for Identification (IAI) but is
usually not required.
Bloodstain pattern analysis is performed in two phases: pattern analysis and
reconstruction.
1. Pattern Analysis looks at the physical characteristics of the stain
patterns including size, shape, distribution, overall appearance, location and
surface texture where the stains are found. Analysts interpret what pattern types
are present and what mechanisms may have caused them.
2. Reconstruction uses the analysis data to put contextual explanations to
the stain patterns: What type of crime has occurred? Where is the person
bleeding from? Did the stain patterns come from the victim or someone else? Are
there other scene factors (e.g. emergency medical intervention, first responder
activities) that affected the stain patterns?

LESSON: 21 SCENE OF THE CRIME OPERATION (SOCO)

SCENE OF CRIME OPERATION

(SOCO)
It is a forensic procedure performed by trained personnel of the PNP Crime
Laboratory through scientific methods of investigation for the purpose of
preserving the crime scene, gathering information, docu, collection, and
examination of all physical evidence.
Scene of Crime Operations (SOCO) -The mandated functions and activities of.
police forensic personnel such as the scientific collection, handling, preservation
and. processing of evidence in the crime scene. It is also known as crime scene
investigators or CSIs) work alongside police officers to help solve crimes. They're
experts trained to take photographs of evidence and identify traces left at crime
scenes.
The SOCO Teams are co-located within the police stations to ensure close
coordination and collaboration between and among the forensic evidence
collectors and criminal investigators;
“Metro Manila is now experiencing the operational readiness of the NCRPO
SOCO Teams. Cities having their own Teams will give a response time of 5 to 10
minutes in arriving to the crime scene and be at the forefront in processing and
gathering evidence, solving any case from the focus crimes to sensational
incidents. Once again, we are encouraging the public to immediately report to
the nearest barangay officials and the police hotlines any suspicious person or
untoward incident in your community.
This group serves as the intelligence and counter-intelligence op of the Crime
Operatives (SOCO) This group provides scientific and technical, investigative aide
and support to the PNP and other investigative agencies.

MISSION
The SOCO shall provide forensic expertise to criminal investigation by preserving,
securing, and if need be, by scientifically reconstructing the crime scene for the
collection, documentation, and forensic examination of all collected physical
evidence with the end in view of establishing fact/s relative to a criminal incident.
FUNCTIONS/OBJECTIVES
1. It shall determine and delineate
2. It shall preserve and ensure the protection
3. It shall conduct methodical search
4. It shall methodically document
5. It shall methodically collect and transport all available physical evidence
6. It shall present before any competent court its findings.
1. To conduct forensic investigations
2. To enable the police to identify & arrest the criminal perpetrators .
3. To establish the facts .
4. To strictly adhere to the protocols
5. To progressively acquire new technology and human skills.

GENERAL SOCO PROCEDURES

1. Preparation Prior to the Conduct of SOCO

2. Evaluation of Physical Evidence

3. Crime Scene Approach

4. Narrative description of the Crime Scene

5. Crime Scene

6. Photography / Videography

7. Preliminary

8. Crime Scene Survey

9. Sketch of Crime Scene

10. Turn-Over/Release of Crime Scene to Investigator-On-Case

11. Detailed Crime Scene Search

12. Physical Evidence

13. Recording and Collection

14. Final Crime Scene Survey

SOCO TEAM ORGANIZATION

1. Basic Individual Attribute
2. Training
3. Basic SOCO Composition/Tasks
The police officer arrives with a team called Scene of the Crime Operations
(SOCO) composed of six members.
The usual team involved at a crime scene including team leader, first officer
arrived at scene, evidence collector, sketcher, and photographer. Their roles
include the scene investigation and sketch, tagging, collection and photography
of evidence.

"BASIC SOCO COMPOSITION/TASK"

1. Team Leader

- Assume control - ensure safety of personnel and security at scene. Ensure

personnel use appropriate protective equipment and follow standard
recommendations to protect them from any health hazard which might be
presented by blood or any other human body fluid.
- Conduct initial walk-through for purposes of making a preliminary survey,
evaluating potential evidence, and preparing a narrative description.
- Determine search patterns, and make appropriate assignments for team
members.
- Designate command post location and ensure exchange of information
between search and investigative personnel.
- Coordinate with other law enforcement agencies and make sure a cooperative
spirit is maintained.
- Ensure that sufficient supplies and equipment are available for personnel.
- Control access to the scene and designate an individual to log everyone into
the scene.
- Continuously reevaluate efficiency of search during entire course of operation.
- Release the scene after a final survey and inventory of the evidence has been
done.
2. Photographer

- Photograph entire area before it is entered.

- Photograph victims, crowd, and vehicles.
- Photograph entire scene with overall, medium and close-up coverage, using
measurement scale when appropriate.
- Photograph major evidence items before they are moved; coordinate this effort
with Sketch Preparer, Evidence Recorder, and Evidence Recovery Personnel.
- Photograph all latent fingerprints and other impression evidence before lifting
and casting are accomplished.
- Prepare photographic log and photographic sketch.

3. Sketcher

- Diagram immediate area of scene and orient diagram with sketch.

- Set forth major items of evidence on sketch.
- Designate and label areas to be searched and advise team leader and all other
search members of nomenclature for designated areas.
- Obtain appropriate assistance for taking measurements and double check
measurements.
- Ensure necessary administrative information, such as scale disclaimer (not
drawn to scale), is recorded on sketch.
4. Evidence Log Recorder/Custodian

- Have significant evidence photographed before collection.

- Describe evidence and its location on appropriate bag or envelope.
- Sign and date evidence container/maintain chain of custody.
- Appropriately collect and package evidence to maximize evidence integrity.
- Maintain evidence log.
- Use appropriate protective equipment (gloves) and methods when dealing with
potentially infective evidence (blood).
5. Forensic Specialist.
- It is sometimes necessary to bring in expertise from an outside agency. The field
of forensic science is so broad today that no agency will have every form of
specialty service available from among its ranks. Typically, specialists are brought
in from industry, the academic community, private scientific laboratories, and
similar concerns.
When dealing with outside specialists some pertinent aspects to consider are:
* The competence and reliability of the specialist.
* The ability of the specialist to work at a scene within law enforcement
guidelines.
*The role of the specialist in presenting expert testimony in court.
- Specialists should be identified before they are needed in an actual case. A
current list should be maintained, if possible. The agency should meet with these
individuals to determine the best manner to jointly conduct search planning,
operations, and follow-up activity.
Basic SOCO Composition/Tasks

SOCO EQUIPMENTS AND OTHER LOGISTICAL SUPPORT

1. SOCO Team Element's Uniform
2. Team Equipment
Suppletory Administrative Rules and Procedures
1. Stand on Tri-Media and Prescribed Relationship
2. Crime Scene Protection and Preservation Trainings
3. Precedence of Authority.
4. Coordination
5. Training Design
A primary crime scene is the scene where the actual criminal activity took place.
For example, in a murder investigation, the primary crime scene would be the
scene where the murder occurred and the person's life was taken. However, there
might be additional crime scenes involved as well.
Different types of crime scenes include outdoors, indoor, and conveyance.
Outdoor crime scenes are the most difficult to investigate.
Through the completion of a SOCO course, personnel’s abilities in conducting
scientific crime scene processes and establishing facts relative to crime incident
were developed and enhanced. They were prepared properly in undertaking
SOCO duties and responsibilities.
The SOCO Teams are co-located within the police stations to ensure close
coordination and collaboration between and among the forensic evidence
collectors and criminal investigators;
“Metro Manila is now experiencing the operational readiness of the NCRPO
SOCO Teams. Cities having their own Teams will give a response time of 5 to 10
minutes in arriving to the crime scene and be at the forefront in processing and
gathering evidence, solving any case from the focus crimes to sensational
incidents. Once again, we are encouraging the public to immediately report to
the nearest barangay officials and the police hotlines any suspicious person or
untoward incident in your community.
This group serves as the intelligence and counter-intelligence op of the Crime
Operatives (SOCO) This group provides scientific and technical, investigative aide
and support to the PNP and other investigative agencies.