MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC
CHEMISTRY

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
Forensic is related to scientific methods of solving crimes, involving examining the objects or substances that
are involved in the crime, and provide information about a crime or relating to legal cases. Chemistry is the
study of composition of matter and the changes it undergoes.

Forensic Chemistry is the application of chemistry principles and examination techniques to criminal
investigation and legal conflicts.

In criminal investigation, it involves methods used to collect and preserve evidence to complex chemical
examinations used to identify substances. The ability of the forensic chemist is important in conducting
examination because of the destructive nature of some instruments and the vast possibility of unknown
substances that can be found at a crime scene. It is preferred to use non-destructive techniques first to preserve
the evidence and to determine which destructive methods produce the best results.

HISTORY OF FORENSIC
YEAR CONTRIBUTION
1590s Zacharias Janssen develops first compound light microscope
1784 First use of fracture edge matching/pattern matching in John Toms’ case
1810 Konigin Handschrift document dye analyzed by chemical test
1828 William Nichol invents polarized light microscope
1835 Charles Wheatstone invents emission spectroscopy
1836 James Marsh develops test for arsenic, and it is used in a jury trial
1858 Johann Peter Griess develops test for nitrites
1867 Alfred Nobel receives US patent for his invention of dynamite
1880 Henry Faulds suggests using fingerprints on clay and glass to solve crimes
1883 K. Mandelin develops test for strychnine later applied to alkaloids
1885 Theodore Wormley publishes book Micro-chemistry of Poisons

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1889 Alexander Lacassagne matches bullets using land and grooves to a gun barrel

Hans Gross describes the use of physical evidence in solving crimes in his book and coins the term
1891
Criminalistics
1892 Francis Galton publishes first book on fingerprints

1894 Alphonse Bertillon’s handwriting analysis is used to convict Alfred Dreyfus (falsely)

1898 J. J. Thomson measures mass-to-charge ratio of the electron

 Will West prison case solved using latent fingerprints
1903
 M. S. Tswett separates plant pigments using paper chromatography
1906 Pres. T. Roosevelt signs US Pure Food and Drugs Act signed into law
1910 Albert Sherman Osborn publishes Questioned Documents
1915 First use of chemical weapons
Francis Aston builds the first fully functional mass spectrometer and later uses it to discover 212
1919
naturally occurring isotopes

 Geneva Protocol signed that prohibits use of chemical and biological weapons in war
1928
 C. V. Raman develops Raman spectroscopy

1930 Edmond Locard’s Principle

1930s Pierre Duquenois develops color test for THC
Glenn Seaborg, Joseph Kennedy, Edwin McMIllan, Emilio Segre and Arthur Wahl discover
1940
plutonium-239
First nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) spectra of liquids and solids by Felix Bloch
1945
and Edward Mills Purcell, independently
1948 Founding of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences
Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence Millington Synge invent modern gas
1951
chromatography

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 1955 Modern flame atomic absorption spectrometer developed by Sir Alan Walsh
1962 Rachel Carson publishes book Silent Spring
1970 First meeting of the Society of Toxicology on Long Island
1973 GC-MS applications to analysis of drugs and metabolites
1974 Richard Ernst pioneers’ two-dimensional NMR COSY experiment
1974 SEM-EDX is applied to gunshot residue analysis
1977 Application of FT-IR in forensic science

 Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas pioneer the matrix-assisted laser desorption
1988 ionization-MS technique
 Introduction of enzyme-multiplied immunoassay technique (EMIT) in forensic toxicology

1991 Richard Ernst develops high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

1992 GC-IR is applied to forensic drug analysis

1996 Raman spectroscopy is introduced to forensic use
Scientific Working Group for the Analysis of Seized Drugs is created by the US National Institute
1997
of Standards and Technology

2001 US FBI investigates Amerithrax case of deaths due to mailed letters containing anthrax spores

SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

Forensic chemistry involves examination of the following substances:
1. Dangerous drugs analysis
2. Gunpowder residue
3. Explosives
4. Blood and blood stains
5. Semen
6. Hair and fibers
7. Other biological substances (saliva, urine, and feces)
8. Soil analysis
9. Metallurgy and restoration of tampered serial numbers
10. Other trace evidence (tool marks, dust, dirt, debris)
11. Casting and moulage
12. Glass fracture analysis and fragments
13. Inks and paper
14. Nature of toxicology
15. Poisons and its kinds, types, or classification
16. Antidotes and its types and process
17. Instrumentation in forensic chemistry and toxicology
18. DNA

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OTHER FIELDS OF FORENSIC
1. Criminalistics - sometimes used synonymously with forensic science. It involves the identification,
collection, preservation, investigation, presentation and analysis of physical evidence arising from
criminal activity.
2. Forensic Pathology - conducted by a medical examiner or physician specially trained in clinical and
anatomic pathology whose function is to determine the cause and manner of death in cases where the
death occurred under suspicious or unknown circumstances. It often involves autopsy or post-mortem
examination of the body. 
3. Forensic Anthropology - the study of humans and their ancestors dealing with identification of people
who cannot be identified through soft tissue features. It analyzes skeletal remains to determine if they
are human, including the age, sex, height, and other characteristics of the remains compared with those
of the missing person in question. In addition to this, is the reconstruction and identification of victims
in mass casualties.
4. Forensic Odontology - sometimes called forensic dentistry. It is used to identify human remains,
including comparison of post-mortem and ante-mortem  x-rays of the teeth and bitemarks.
5. Forensic Engineering - involves the testing of materials, products or structures that do not function like
they were designed or built to.
6. Toxicology - involves the chemical analysis of body fluids and tissues to determine if a drug or poison is
present.

RELATED LAWS
Studying forensic chemistry is applicable to criminal (revised penal code and special penal laws), civil and
administrative cases. Some of these special penal laws are:
1. RA 10586 or An Act Penalizing Persons Driving Under the Influence of Alcohol, Dangerous Drugs, and
Similar Substances, and for Other Purposes
2. RA 9165 or Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002
3. RA 8294 / RA 9516 or An Act Amending the Provisions of Presidential Decree No. 1866, as amended,
entitled “Codifying the Laws on Illegal/Unlawful Possession, Manufacture, Dealing in, Acquisition or
Disposition of Firearms, Ammunition or Explosives or Instruments Used in the Manufacture of
Firearms, Ammunition or Explosives, and Imposing Stiffer Penalties for Certain Violations thereof, and
for Relevant Purposes”
4. RA 8293 or An Act Prescribing the Intellectual Property Code and Establishing the Intellectual Property
Office, Providing for its Powers and Functions, and for Other Purpose

COURT PRESENTATION
The result of forensic chemistry examination is generally used in criminal investigation and court presentation.
Forensic chemist must not only knowledgeable in scientific and legal concepts, but also in preparing a
laboratory report and later testify as expert witness.
Prior to this, a forensic chemist is involved in criminal investigation by way of:
1. Responding to crime scene. At the crime scene, a forensic chemist should know how to recognize,
collect, and preserve evidence.
2. Analyzing evidence. This is the primary task of a forensic chemist. A specimen will be submitted in the
laboratory, and it will be analyzed, and a laboratory report will be prepared.
3. Court testimony. A subpoena will be sent to the forensic chemist to appear and testify in court as an
expert witness. It is the most effective way to convey the manner and result of examination before the
judge, prosecution, and defense.
a. Subpoena - an order issued by the Court at a specific date and place to give testimony

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 b. Expert witness - often called to state conclusions and opinions on their area of expertise because
of their knowledge and skills
c. Ordinary witness - limited to first-hand observations and impressions stating only facts and not
normally permitted to give opinions. It only testifies according to what has been directly
experienced through their five senses.

In addition to these, it must be showed that the evidence is in the same condition from the moment it was seized
until its court presentation. This is authenticated by a chain of custody. It is a document and a process that
shows the transfer of evidence from the custody of one person to another.

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 MODULE 2

DANGEROUS DRUGS

INTRODUCTION

Majority of substances being examined in a forensic chemistry laboratory are dangerous drugs.

Drugs are substances having pharmacological effect base on their structures. They can be obtained from natural
sources (plants or fungi) or synthesized from chemicals. It can be created by a pharmaceutical laboratory or in a
clandestine laboratory.

natural (plant) natural (fungi)

pharmaceutical laboratory clandestine laboratory

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Drugs are also substances that:

→ causes dependency in humans;

→ intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment of prevention of disease/s;
→ alters the mind, senses, mood or thoughts; and
→ those listed in RA 9165 (Dangerous Drugs)

A. DEPENDENCE AND ADDICTION

1. Physical dependence

Physical dependence is a condition resulting from chronic drug use that is characterized by the
physiological side effects of tolerance and withdrawal.

a. Tolerance - the need to ingest progressively larger amounts of a drug to maintain a desired effect
b. Withdrawal - the unfavorable physical symptoms that result if drug use is suddenly stopped or
dosage is drastically reduced

2. Psychological dependence

Psychological dependency is a perceived need or desire for a drug and is commonly associated with
addiction.

B. DRUG ABUSE AND HAZARDS

1. Factors affecting the presence of drugs in the body

a. age
b. sex
c. type of drug
d. frequency of abuse
e. duration of abuse
f. daily dosage
g. route of administration
h. concurrent abuse of other drugs

2. Potency - the amount or dosage of a drug that must be taken in order to produce a desired effect
3. Efficacy - the capacity of a drug to produce a given or desired effect regardless of dose
4. Factors affecting physical effect produced by any drug

a. dose of drug

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 b. route of administration
c. individual sensitivity to the drug

5. Administration of drug

a. smoked
b. sniffed
c. injected
d. oral

6. Examples of psychotropic drugs or mind-altering drugs

a. stimulants - caffeine and amphetamine

b. intoxicants - ethanol and nitrous oxide
c. hypnotics - methaqualone and mecloqualone
d. analgesics / tranquilizers - morphine and heroin
e. hallucinogens - psilocyn and mescaline
f. psychoanaleptic - cocaine and amphetamine
g. psycholeptic - morphine and heroin
h. enactogens - MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, ecstasy) and MDA (3,4-
methylenedioxyamphetamine)
i. psychodysleptic - mescaline and LSD

C. ORIGIN OF DRUGS

Drugs may either be produced naturally or synthetically.

 Natural drugs - derived either from plants or animals

1. heroin - extracted from the poppy plant

2. cocaine - isolated from coca plants
3. tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) - can be extracted from marijuana plants but its effect can be obtained
from direct usage of the dried plant
4. lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) - extracted from the ergot of rye
5. psilocin/psilocybin - isolated from mushrooms
6. bufotenine - collected from the skin glands of the Bufo toad or from toadstool mushrooms.

 Synthetic drugs - derived from mineral sources using a wide range of chemical processes.

1. barbiturates are produced from pyrimidine

2. phenethylamine analogs (except drugs in Khat or peyote plants)
3. the tryptamine family of drugs

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS BASE ON EFFECT

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A. NARCOTICS

Narcotic drugs depress the CNS and are given for a short time to reduce the risk of developing physical
dependence. They are classified as analgesics or pain relievers, soporifics or sleep aids and ethanol.

1. Alkaloids - alkaline drugs containing one or more nitrogen atoms

a. Opium

Opium is a highly toxic plant alkaloid. The parent narcotic that is a habit-forming is a mixture of
chemical compounds including morphine. Drugs derived from this are called opiates or opioids.

1) Opium Poppy

Poppy (Papaver somniferum L .) or opium poppy is a plant native to southeastern Europe and
western Asia. The erect plant can have white, pink, red, or purple flowers and can grow to heights
exceeding 4 ft. Seeds range in color from white to purple-gray and grow best at temperatures
between 7 and 23°C in soil with a pH of 4.5–8.3, receiving an annual rainfall of 1–5 ft.

2) Opiates

Opiates refer to any of the naturally occurring narcotic alkaloids found in the latex of opium poppy
plants as well as synthetic derivatives of the natural alkaloids. Latex is a milky, sap-like emulsion
containing proteins, alkaloids, sugars, oils, and resins. When this is dried to a gummy consistency,
it is collected from the seedpod. The combined scrapings from several flowers are pressed into
cakes that darken from grayish to tan or brown as they dry.

b. Morphine

Morphine is a naturally occuring white crystalline alkaloid. It is slightly soluble in water, alcohol and
ether. It crystallizes as morphine sulfate, a salt that is usually either a white powder or white silky
crystals. It is a highly toxic and highly addictive substance that affects the CNS and gastrointestinal
tract. It is used as an analgesic and sedative to relieve pain (painkiller).

This substance is administered orally, subcutaneously, epidurally, rectally, or intravenously (single

injection or continuous pump). On the other hand, abusers inhale (chasing the dragon) it and prolonged
use develops physical addiction and psychological dependence including tolerance and withdrawal.

Withdrawal symptoms happen just before the next scheduled dose including watery eyes, insomnia, runny nose,
sweating, severe headaches, irritability, severe abdominal pain, and depression. In extreme cases, heart attack,
stroke, and blood clotting can occur.

Side effects include euphoria, alteration in mood, impairment of mental and physical performance, reduced fear
and anxiety, decreased hunger, renal failure and depression of respiratory functions.

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 c. Heroin (3,6-diacetylmorphine)

Heroin is a synthetic alkaloid. It is a crude mixture of opium alkaloids from the extracted morphine
from opium with subsequent acetylation.

It is a dull white powder (salt of heroin) or a dirty black tar (freebase of

heroin). It can be administered orally, by inhalation (chasing the dragon), by
snorting or by intravenous injection. Abusers initially inject this in the easily
accessible veins in the arm, but this will eventually collapse from damage
due to acid. Because of this, users will find an alternative veins for injection.

Inhalation and injection are almost immediately felt because of the presence of the acetyl groups. This increases
the lipid solubility of heroin resulting in direct crossing in the blood–brain barrier. When taken orally, the acetyl
groups are effectively removed through metabolism (deacetylation) and heroin is essentially delivered to target
systems as morphine.

The short- and long-term side effects of heroin use include symptoms of withdrawal that are very similar to
those associated with morphine. Cocaine can be fatal when used in combination with heroin. Speedballs (when
injected) and moonrocks (when smoked) are popular combinations. But, mixing stimulants and depressants can
have unpredictable effects that are often fatal.

d. Codeine

Codeine is another content of opium and a naturally occuring alkaloid. It can be isolated naturally from
latex or synthetically produced using o-methylation (adding methyl group to oxygen) of morphine. It is
used as a painkiller, sedative, cough suppressant or antidiarrheal agent. It is often prescribed with
acetaminophen (Tylenol-3), aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) or ibuprofen because of the pain-relieving
effect of these combinations. Excessive use of codeine can result in psychological addiction and
physical dependence. The short- and long-term side effects include symptoms of withdrawal that are
very similar to those associated with morphine but are less severe in nature.

2. Barbiturates

Barbiturates induce sleep by suppressing the CNS. It produces a feeling of well-being. If a person did not
sleep after taking the drug, they experience effects similar to those of alcohol intoxication like euphoria,
confusion and impaired judegment. However, low doses are still used to suppress seizures, as sedatives and
anxiolytics (reduce anxiety). These are also called “downers”.

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Chemically, there are more than 20 barbituric acid derivatives and formulations sold. The most often prescribed
are amobarbital, pentobarbital, phenobarbital and secobarbital which come in tablet form. In hospitals, ultra-
fast-acting barbiturates are administered by injection. Commonly used as sedatives, hypnotics, anesthetics and
anticonvulsants.

3. Depressants

a. Methaqualone (Quaalude, Sopor)

Methaqualone is a safer alternative to barbiturates. It is a powerful sedative and muscle relaxant but
was pulled from the market because of its very high potential for abuse.

b. Alcohol (Ethanol)

Alcohol is a very common and legal CNS depressant. It is found in beer, wine and liquor, a by-product
of fermentation when sugars from grains or fruits are processed by yeast.

Inside the body, it passes the blood-brain barrier and suppresses cognitive processes and muscle coordination.
The ability to think and perform simple tasks degrades as the amount of alcohol ingested becomes greater. If
enough alcohol is consumed, a person may pass out or may cause a person to stop breathing or induce cardiac
arrest.

4. Tranquilizers

Tranquilizers differ from barbiturates because it does not affect the CNS strongly. It is divided into major
tranquilizers (neuroleptics) and minor tranquilizers and prescribed as anxiolytics, sedatives, and hypnotics.
While they can produce relaxation and reduce anxieties without inducing sleep, minor tranquilizers are
more likely to be abused.

B. STIMULANTS

Stimulants increases the activity of the CNS (uppers). Medicinally, they are used to suppress appetite and
fatigue. These drugs may create a feeling of euphoria, hyperactivity, delusions, and hallucinations. As the drug
wears off, depression and fatigue re

1. Methamphetamine

Methamphetamine was developed by Japanese’s chemist Akira Ogata in 1919 using the reduction of
ephedrine with red phosphorous and iodine. It can be injected or inhaled. When a solution of this is
evaporated from solvent, it forms large and colorless crystals. Ice is a smokable form of
methamphetamine that has the same effects with crack cocaine.

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It is a potent stimulant even in small doses. The term methamphetamine (or crystal meth) refers to d-
methamphetamine (2S), a powerful central nervous stimulant. The l-isomer (2R) is most often found in inhalers
to treat nasal congestion and has no central nervous system activity or addictive properties.

It increases alertness and physical activity while decreasing appetite. Those who either smoke or inject
methamphetamine have reported a short and intense sensation called rush. Oral ingestion or snorting produces a
much longer-lasting high, which may continue for half a day. Methamphetamine is believed to cause the release
of high levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine into areas of the brain that regulate feelings of pleasure or deep
sensation of well-being. These elevated levels can damage nerve terminals in the brain and have been
implicated in the overall toxic effects of the drug.
short-term effects long-term effects
increased attention and activity addiction
decreased fatigue and appetite brain damage (violent behavior, anxiety, confusion and
euphoria and rush insomnia)
elevated respiratory rates psychotic features (paranoia, auditory hallucinations, mood
hyperthemia disturbances)
high doses can immediately elevate body delusions accompanied by repetitive motor activity, weight
temperature to dangerous levels and life- loss and increased risk of stroke
threatening convulsions

2. Phentermine

Phentermine is an appetite suppresant for short-term treatment of obesity. It stimulates the adrenal
glands located on top of the kidneys to produce the catecholamines epinephrine (adrenaline) and
norepinephrine (noradrenaline). In high doses, it stimulates various regions of the brain, producing the
neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin.

Dopamine is a precursor to epinephrine and norepinephrine that regulates movement, emotional response, and
perception of pain and pleasure. Serotonin regulates sleep, mood, attention, appetite, muscle contraction,
memory, and learning. When combined with fenfluramine and dexfenfluramine, it can cause heart valve
abnormalities.

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 3. Ephedrine and Pseudoephedrine

Ephedrine is a stimulant that acts on the CNS. It is an alkaloid found in the stem of plants in the genus
Ephedra. It is commonly used to treat respiratory conditions (bronchodilator), nasal congestion
(decongestant), low blood pressure (orthostatic hypotension), and myasthenia gravis. It also has general
applications in the treatment of certain sleep disorders (narcolepsy), menstrual-cycle abnormalities
(dysmenorrhea), and urinary-control problems (incontinence or enuresis), the primary active
component in many dietary supplements taken for either weight loss or energy enhancement. Recently,
these supplements caused a number of cardiovascular and CNS disorders. It is also used in the illicit
production of methamphetamine.

A majority of the adverse side effects associated with ephedrine use are cardiovascular in nature and include
hypertension, palpitations, arrhythmia, myocardial infarction, cardiac arrest, stroke, transient ischemic attack,
and seizures. Less serious effects are related to the central nervous system and include tremors, anxiety,
nervousness, hyperactivity, and insomnia.
The term ephedrine often refers to l-ephedrine, the isomer commonly found in over-the-counter medications. d-
pseudoephedrine is significantly more active and targets the central nervous system.

Pseudoephedrine is commonly used to treat nasal and sinus congestion caused by either the common cold or
allergies. Common side effects include CNS stimulation, nervousness, excitability, dizziness, and insomnia.
Tachycardia and/or palpitations are infrequent but do occur. In rare instances, pseudoephedrine has been
associated with hallucinations, arrhythmias, hypertension, seizures, and ischemic colitis.

C. ANESTHETICS

1. Cocaine

Cocaine is extracted from the coca plant, a member of the order Geraniales and the family
Erythroxylaceae. It is a potent stimulant that is highly addictive. In pure form, it is either a powdered
hydrogen-chloride salt or a rock crystal free base (crack).

The acid form (salt) is typically either snorted or dissolved in water and injected, while the base form (free base)
is usually vaporized and inhaled. It has legitimate applications in medicine that are primarily related to its
anesthetic or numbing effects. Novocaine (procaine) and xylocaine (lidocaine HCl) are commonly used as local
anesthetics in dentistry.

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The effects of cocaine appear almost immediately after ingestion and can last from minutes to hours, depending
on the method of administration. The user commonly feels euphoric and energetic while experiencing elevated
states of mental awareness, especially to the sensations of sight, sound, and touch. These effects are often
accompanied by a reduced need for sleep and food. The duration and intensity of the “high” is largely
dependent on the rate of absorption. Cocaine that is rapidly absorbed into the blood stream is delivered to the
brain sooner producing more intense, but shorter periods of effectiveness.

The short- and long-term effects of cocaine use are usually related to the inhibition of dopamine reabsorption by
nerve cells in the brain. Elevated levels of dopamine produce a variety of physical and psychological effects
including increased body temperature, heart rate and blood pressure, constriction of blood vessels, dilated
pupils, tremors, muscle twitches, vertigo, paranoia, and anxiety. Excessive use can cause irritability, erratic or
violent behavior, periods of paranoid psychosis including auditory hallucinations, seizures resulting in
respiratory failure, and death from cardiac arrest. Some effects are directly related to the method of
administration. For example, excessive snorting can cause nosebleeds, hoarseness, chronic runny nose,
problems with swallowing, and damage to nasal membranes resulting in a loss of the sense of smell.

2. Fentanyl

Fentanyl (N-phenyl-N-(1-phenethyl-4-piperidinyl) propanamide) is extensively used as an anesthetic

and analgesic in operating rooms and intensive care units under the trade name Sublimaze. They are
generally sold as tablets, transdermal patches, lollypops, and injections. Fentanyl is potentially
hazardous to handlers, transporters, and examiners due to its high potency and susceptibility to dermal
absorption. Therefore, additional safety measures are highly recommended when in direct contact with
this drug.

D. HALLUCINOGENS

Hallucinogens are chemical substances that distort perception and induce delusions. It can be derived from
plants or made in a laboratory causing a wide variety of experiences ranging from altered perception to the
perception of sensations not present. They do not have a common chemical structure, but they have the same
mode of action.

1. Cannabis or Marijuana

Marijuana is a drug prepared from the plant Cannabis sativa. It contains the psychoactive drug
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) affecting the CNS producing both physical and psychological effects.
Cannabinoids such as cannabinol (CBN) and cannabidiol (CBD) is present in this plant.

The marijuana leaf is palmately compound with each leaf composed of 5-9 serrated leaflets. The leaves of
sativa plants are long and thin, while indica leaves are wider and shorter. Users believe that the difference
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between the two is: Cannabis sativa produces more cognitive and perceptual effects, while Cannabis indica
generates more physical effects.

All plants exhibit three types of hairs:

 glandular trichomes: hairs that produce THC-rich resin and often seen as having a little ball of red or
colorless resin at the top
 non glandular trichomes: similar in appearance to glandular trichomes and these hairs do not produce
resin or appear to have a ball at their tips
 cystolithic hairs: broad, often colorless hairs resembling claws

Marijuana preparations:

 Leaf (Shake) - a collection of dried leaves, stems and seeds. It is considered a poor-quality mixture by
users because of the low (about 3%) THC content of material.
 Bud - the flowering tops of the marijuana plant and is richer in THC, especially the females. Depending on
the variety of material, THC content may range up to 8%.
 Sinsemilla (without seeds) - refers to marijuana composed of the unfertilized flowering tops of female
plants. To achieve sinsemilla, male plants are killed as soon as they are identified, to produce an
environment free of pollen. The flowering tops of these unfertilized female plants contain up to 10% THC.
 Hemp - grown for industrial (nondrug) purposes.
 Hashish (hash) - THC resin extracted from the female flowers and more concentrated than Marijuana and
hash oil is a more concentrated form of hashish. This is stronger than shake. It is formed by rubbing or
shaking the glandular trichomes from the flowering tops. The resin and bits of plant material are then
pressed together in a cake or bar and dried, creating a drug with 10 to 12% THC.
 Kief - the powder form composed mainly of dried resin hairs and very small leaf particles produced by
shaking dried marijuana in a sieve having THC content comparable to hash. Sometimes also called crystals
or red shake.
 Resin - thick tar by-product of smoking cannabis containing trace amounts of THC.
 Hash oil (hashish oil) - a dark liquid containing the extract of THC from plant materials created by soaking
flowering tops in a solvent and then concentrating the extract. While most hash oil contains up to 20%
THC, some may contain as much as 70% THC once concentrated.

Marijuana users may experience a sense of well-being, relaxation, and increased sensitivity of the senses.
Undesirable effects include dry mouth, red eyes, impaired judgment, and impaired coordination. Use of the drug
is often followed by increased hunger. Higher dosages may lead to delusions and hallucinations. Marijuana does
not seem to cause physical dependency, but prolonged heavy use may result in psychological dependence.

Possible medical uses of marijuana include relief of pain, increase of appetite, reduction of nausea, dilation of
blood vessels, and lowering of intraocular pressure. The benefits of THC are available by prescription in the
form of a pill called Marinol.

2. LSD (d-Lysergic acid diethylamide)

LSD derived from ergot alkaloids, which are derived from a grain fungus (Claviceps purpurea) and is
the most potent hallucinogenic drug or a powerful psychedelic hallucinogen. It is a colorless,

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 odorless, tasteless liqud. It is not addictive and has rare effect of psychological dependence. But it can
cause psychosis in borderline cases and often gives flashbacks.

 flashbacks - episodes of hallucinations

It is also synthetically produced from precursors lysergic acid and lysergic acid amide and chemicals
ergotamine and ergonovine. LSD is available in tablet and capsule form. It is commonly blotted on decorative
paper and cut into individual squares that are sold and ingested orally.

In 1935, the alkaloid ergonovine, which causes strong muscular contractions was isolated from ergot and used
to induce labor and control hemorrhaging. Also, the alkaloid ergotamine has been used extensively to relieve
migraine headaches by causing constriction of blood vessels.

3. Psilocybin

Psilocybin is similar to LSD because its chemical structural backbone is the same, a substance called
“Indole” and is found in a variety of mushrooms and has effects similar to both LSD and mescaline.

4. Mescaline

Mescaline is a substance whose chemical structure is similar to amphetamine, but, because of

substitutions on the benzene ring, has hallucinogenic rather than stimulant properties.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS BASE ON USE

A. DESIGNER DRUGS

Designer drugs are modification of the structure of an existing drug, legal and illegal, to produce an analog in an
effort to circumvent the law.

B. CLUB DRUGS

Like hallucinogens, club drugs are not chemically related and have different modes of action. They are used at
dance clubs, nightclubs, and bars to keep people going and enhance their club-going experience. Some are used
as date-rape drugs.

1. MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine or Ecstasy)

MDMA is a synthetic psychedelic stimulant. It produces a general state of relaxation and well-being
but generally considered more dangerous and unpredictable. Chronic use can cause permanent brain
damage to serotonin nerve terminals and less severe effects including confusion, depression, paranoia,
blurred vision, and an inability to control body temperature leading to liver, kidney, and cardiovascular

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 failure. It is usually self-ingested in tablet form, but other common methods of administration include
snorting and injection.

2. GHB (gamma hydroxybutyrate, liquid ecstasy, gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid: γ-Hydroxybutyric

Acid)

GHB is a colorless and odorless liquid with a slightly salty taste that is used as CNS depressant. It is
also available as a tablet. It is a naturally occurring compound that may function as a neurotransmitter
in the brain inhibiting the release of dopamine. When mixed with alcohol, it can cause a person to
black out. It is also called a “date-rape” drug with an effect of inducing amnesia. The administration of
GHB is very difficult to prove because it is removed from the bloodstream very rapidly.

In low doses, GHB causes drowsiness, dizziness, nausea, and visual disturbances. In high doses,
unconsciousness, seizures, severe respiratory depression, and coma can occur. GHB overdose causes respiratory
depression and coma.

3. Rohypnol (flunitrazepam, roche, roofies)

Another colorless and odorless CNS depressant. The drug has sedative and muscle relaxant effects and
amplified when mixed with alcohol.

4. Ketamine (Special K, Vitamin K)

Ketamine is a short-acting, dissociative anesthetic produced as an injectable liquid for use by

veterinarians. The hydrochloride salt is marketed as Ketalar for medicinal use and Ketaset to
veterinarians. It may appear as a powder or tablet in a club. In humans, it has hypnotic, analgesic,
euphoric and amnesic (causes short-term memory loss) properties. In some, it is a mild
hallucinogen.

C. STUDY DRUGS

Study drugs are amphetamines or amphetamine derivatives that have been diverted from their original purpose.
These drugs are often prescribed for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or attention deficit

17
disorder (ADD). The mechanism by which they work is unclear. Rather than demonstrating a stimulating effect,
these drugs exhibit paradoxic reactions. That is, they have a sedative effect on hyperactive people.

1. Ritalin (Methylphenidate hydrochloride)

Ritalin is a central nervous system stimulant similar to amphetamines. It is used to treat ADHD in
children and adults. It is also used to treat narcolepsy in adults.
2. Dexedrine
Originally, a prescription diet aid. This drug is also prescribed for narcolepsy and ADHD. It has a high
abuse potential and users may become physically addicted.
3. Adderall
Also developed as an anorectic. It serves as a treatment for narcolepsy and ADHD. It may also cause
physical and psychological dependence. In the brain, it increases the levels of dopamine.

D. STEROIDS

Steroids are hormones, part of the endocrine system that tells the body to take specific actions. Most
professional sports and the International Olympic Commission prohibit the use of anabolic steroids, yet abuse of
these drugs continues because of the belief that they enhance performance.

DRUG ANALYSIS
A. COLLECTING AND PRESERVING DRUG EVIDENCE

First, drug evidence should be photographed. Then it should be documented, properly labeled, and packaged to
ensure no contamination between samples occurs.

B. METHODS OF EXAMINING DRUGS

Drugs come in so many different forms that is why forensic drug examiners uses color tests, crystal tests,
microscopy, chromatography, and instrumental methods to identify and quantify them.

Steps in examining dangerous drugs:

1. Physical description - the visual inspection of the submitted and/or recovered specimen
2. Screening test - presumptive test used for preliminary identification of a substance but not specific

Color test - uses reagents that when mixed with a substance containing a specific functional group produces a
distinct color

The interpretation and reporting of colors is dependent on the concentration of the sample, the presence of
diluents and adulterants, the age of the reagent and test reaction times.
18
Below are some of chemical tests used in screening test:

Generally, it is done by transferring a small amount of the unknown sample to the well of a spot plate or a test
tube.

Next, a reagent is added to the unknown sample. Finally, observe the reaction and indicate the color it produced.
It should be compared to a positive and negative control to ascertain the reliability of the testing reagents.

COLOR TEST REAGENT DRUGS COLOR

ephedrine/pseudoephedrine

Chen’s test Chen phenylpropanolamine purple

lidocaine

glutethimide

theophylline
purple
Dille-Koppanyi’s
Dille-Koppanyi chlorzoxazone
test
all barbiturates (except thiobarbs)

dilantin blue/purple

codeine

diazepam

methcathinone
purple
flunitrazepam
Mecke’s test Mecke
phenylacetone

oxycodone

morphine
green
heroin

Marquis’ test Marquis N,N-dimethylamphetamine orange-to-brown

19
 amphetamine
methamphetamine
mescaline
pethidine group
morphine
purple
heroin
codeine
opium brown-red-purple

methadone pink-to-violet

Green-to-black
MDA and MDMA (when
reagent 2 is added first)
Purple-to-black
MDA and MDMA (when
reagent 1 is added first)
morphine orange-to-red

Nitric acid test Nitric acid codeine orange

heroin yellow

Primary amine test primary amine blue

MDMA
Secondary amine
Simon’s blue
test
methamphetamine

cocaine

Tertiary amine test cobalt (II) thiocyanate pethidine blue

methadone
methylphenidate
methaqualone
purple
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
indoles
Van-Urk’s test Van-Urk blue
pyrroles
tryptophan
procaine yellow
benzocaine
purple color must form after the
Duquenois-Levine addition of reagent 3 and the color
Duquenois-Levine cannabis resin
test must transfer into the chloroform
layer after the addition of reagent
4
Froehde’s test Froehde opiate alkaloids purple

20
 diazepam
methcathinone
Janovsky test Janovsky purple
flunitrazepam
phenylacetone
oxycodone
red color after the addition of
Weber test Weber or FBB reagent 1, followed by a blue-
psilocin or psilocybin
green color after the addition of
reagent 2

3. Confirmatory test - performed to identify or confirm the presence of the specific drug or substance

RA 9165 (COMPREHENSIVE

DANGEROUS DRUGS ACT OF 2002)

ARTICLE I - Definition of terms

Section 3. Definitions.

(a) Administer - Any act of introducing any dangerous drug into the body of any person, with or without his/her
knowledge, by injection, inhalation, ingestion or other means, or of committing any act of indispensable
assistance to a person in administering a dangerous drug to himself/herself unless administered by a duly
licensed practitioner for purposes of medication

(d) Chemical Diversion - The sale, distribution, supply or transport of legitimately imported, in-transit,
manufactured or procured controlled precursors and essential chemicals, in diluted, mixtures or in concentrated
form, to any person or entity engaged in the manufacture of any dangerous drug, and shall include packaging,
repackaging, labeling, relabeling or concealment of such transaction through fraud, destruction of documents,
fraudulent use of permits, misdeclaration, use of front companies or mail fraud.

(e) Clandestine Laboratory - Any facility used for the illegal manufacture of any dangerous drug and/or
controlled precursor and essential chemical.

(f) Confirmatory Test - An analytical test using a device, tool or equipment with a different chemical or
physical principle that is more specific which will validate and confirm the result of the screening test.

(h) Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals - Include those listed in Tables I and II of the 1988 UN
Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances as enumerated in the attached
annex which is an integral part of this Act.

(i) Cultivate or Culture - Any act of knowingly planting, growing, raising, or permitting the planting, growing,
or raising of any plant which is the source of a dangerous drug.
21
(j) Dangerous Drugs - Include those listed in the Schedules annexed to the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic
Drugs, as amended by the 1972 Protocol, and in the Schedules annexed to the 1971 Single Convention on
Psychotropic Substances as enumerated in the attached annex which is an integral part of this Act.

(k) Deliver - Any act of knowingly passing a dangerous drug to another, personally or otherwise, and by any
means, with or without consideration.

(l) Den, Dive or Resort - A place where any dangerous drug and/or controlled precursor and essential chemical
is administered, delivered, stored for illegal purposes, distributed, sold or used in any form.

(m) Dispense - Any act of giving away, selling or distributing medicine or any dangerous drug with or without
the use of prescription.

(n) Drug Dependence - As based on the World Health Organization definition, it is a cluster of physiological,
behavioral and cognitive phenomena of variable intensity, in which the use of psychoactive drug takes on an
high priority thereby involving, among others, a strong desire or a sense of compulsion to take the substance
and the difficulties in controlling substance-taking behavior in terms of its onset, termination, or levels of use.

(r) Illegal Trafficking - The illegal cultivation, culture, delivery, administration, dispensation, manufacture,
sale, trading, transportation, distribution, importation, exportation and possession of any dangerous drug and/or
controlled precursor and essential chemical.

(t) Laboratory Equipment - The paraphernalia, apparatus, materials or appliances when used, intended for use
or designed for use in the manufacture of any dangerous drug and/or controlled precursor and essential
chemical, such as reaction vessel, preparative/purifying equipment, fermentors, separator funnel, flask, heating
mantle, gas generator, or their substitute.

(u) Manufacture - The production, preparation, compounding or processing of any dangerous drug and/or
controlled precursor and essential chemical, either directly or indirectly or by extraction from substances of
natural origin, or independently by means of chemical synthesis, and shall include any packaging or
repackaging of such substances, design or configuration of its form, or labeling or relabeling of its container;
except that such terms do not include the preparation, compounding, packaging or labeling of a drug or other
substances by a duly authorized practitioner as an incident to his/her administration or dispensation of such drug
or substance in the course of his/her professional practice including research, teaching and chemical analysis of
dangerous drugs or such substances that are not intended for sale or for any other purpose.

(v) Cannabis or commonly known as “Marijuana” or “Indian Hemp” or by its any other name - Embraces
every kind, class, genus, or specie of the plant Cannabis sativa L. Including, but not limited to, Cannabis
American, hashish, bhang, guava, churros and ganjab, and embraces every kind, class and character of
marijuana, whether dried or fresh and flowering, flowering or fruiting tops, or any part or potion of the plant
and seeds thereof, and all its geographic varieties, whether as a reefer, resin, extract, tincture or in any form
whatsoever.

(w) Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or commonly known as “Ecstasy”, or by its any other name
- Refers to the drug having such chemical composition, including any of its isomers or derivatives in any form.

(x) Methamphetamine Hydrochloride or commonly known as “Shabu”, “Ice”, “Meth”, or by its any other
name - Refers to the drug having such chemical composition, including any of its isomers or derivatives in any
form.

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(y) Opium - Refers to the coagulated juice of the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) and embraces every
kind, class and character of opium, whether crude or prepared; the ashes or refuse of the same; narcotic
preparations thereof or therefrom; morphine or any alkaloid of opium; preparations in which opium, morphine
or any alkaloid of opium enters as an ingredient; opium poppy; opium poppy straw; and leaves or wrappings of
opium leaves, whether prepared for use or not.

(z) Opium Poppy - Refers to any part of the plant of the species Papaver somniferum L., Papaver setigerum
DC, Papaver orientale, Papaver bracteatum and Papaver rhoeas, which includes the seeds, straws, branches,
leaves, or any part thereof, or substances derived therefrom, even for floral, decorative and culinary purposes.

(cc) Planting of Evidence - The willful act by any person of maliciously and surreptitiously inserting, placing,
adding, or attaching directly or indirectly, through any overt or covert act, whatever quantity of any dangerous
drug and/or controlled precursor and essential chemical in the person, house, effects or in the immediate vicinity
of an innocent individual for the purpose of implicating, incriminating, or imputing the commission of any
violation of this Act.

(dd) Practitioner - Any person who is a licensed physician, dentist, chemist, medical technologist, nurse,
midwife, veterinarian, or pharmacist in the Philippines.

(ee) Protector/Coddler - Any person who knowingly and willfully consents to the unlawful acts provided for in
this Act and uses his/her influence, power or position in shielding, harboring, screening or facilitating the
escape or any person he/she knows, or has reasonable grounds to believe on or suspects, has violated the
provisions of this Act in order to prevent the arrest, prosecution and conviction of the violator.

(ff) Pusher - Any person who sells, trades, administers, dispenses, delivers or gives away to another, on any
terms whatsoever, or distributes, dispatches in transit or transports dangerous drugs or who acts as a broker in
any of such transactions, in violation of this Act.

(hh) Screening Test - A rapid test performed to establish potential/presumptive positive result.

(ii) Sell - Any act of giving away any dangerous drug and/or controlled precursor and essential chemical
whether for money or any other consideration.

(jj) Trading - Transactions involving the illegal trafficking of dangerous drugs and/or controlled precursors and
essential chemicals using electronic devices such as, but not limited to, text messages, email, mobile or
landlines, two-way radios, internet, instant messengers and chat rooms or acting as a broker in any of such
transactions whether for money or any other consideration in violation of this Act.

(kk) Use - Any act of injecting, intravenously or intramuscularly, of consuming, either b chewing, smoking,
sniffing, eating, swallowing, drinking or otherwise introducing into the physiological system of the body, and of
the dangerous drugs.

ARTICLE II - Unlawful Act and Penalties

Section 4. Importation of Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals

23
Section 5. Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery, Distribution and Transportation of
Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals

Section 6. Maintenance of a Den, Dive or Resort

Section 8. Manufacture of Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals

Section 9. Illegal Chemical Diversion of Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals

Section 10. Manufacture or Delivery of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus, and Other Paraphernalia for
Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals

Section 11. Possession of Dangerous Drugs

Section 12. Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and Other Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs

Section 15. Use of Dangerous Drugs

Section 21. Custody and Disposition of Confiscated, Seized, and/or Surrendered Dangerous Drugs, Plant
Sources of Dangerous Drugs, Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals, Instruments/Paraphernalia
and/or Laboratory Equipment

CLANDESTINE LABORATORY

Clandestine laboratories are laboratories that manufacture illicit drugs.

Some labs are extremely modern and would be the envy of a legal manufacturer. Most, however, are
rudimentary, dangerous, filthy places with virtually no health and safety precautions. These characteristics are
the more prominent reasons why clandestine labs are discovered. Huge piles of trash containing many chemical
containers or strange smells emanating from the drug lab can tip off neighbors, who then call the police. Fires
and explosions also occur occasionally in clandestine labs.

Some clandestine laboratories can be set up in the trunk of an automobile or station wagon. Sometimes labs will
be set up in rented motel rooms or apartments or even abandoned buildings.

24
 MODULE 3

CRIME SCENE

CRIME SCENE
Forensic science starts at the crime scene and should be treated independently because of its uniqueness. The
evidence found thereat should be recorded and preserved to avoid destruction or alteration that could mislead
the investigation. After documenting the crime scene, all evidence should be collected giving priority to the
most fragile and packaged properly.

Locard’s exchange principle - named after French criminalist Dr. Edmond Locard, the underlying principle on
the value of testing associative evidence that every time someone enters an environment, something is added to
and removed from it

Presumptive information regarding the identity of a person through his personal effects and identification
should also be noted. However, a confirmation must still be made.

A. SECURE THE CRIME SCENE

The first responder (FR) in a crime scene has the responsibility of securing and preserving it. Above
everything, medical assistance should be given to those in need. All information relative to it should be
recorded.

The FR should call for the required personnel to investigate the crime scene. He has the task of limiting the
persons going in and out of the vicinity and establish a perimeter using crime-scene tape or any improvised
material that will show the possible crime scene.

B. SURVEY THE CRIME SCENE

This is where the crime scene investigator assesses the area. The initial survey or walk-through gives him an
overview of the situation and how to process and record the crime scene.

Investigators should note all observations. The presence or absence of an object may suggest a valuable
information. It can also suggest whether the crime scene is primary or secondary.

1. primary crime scene - where the original incident occurred

2. secondary crime scene - a location that became part of the criminal activity after the original incident

C. SEARCH THE CRIME SCENE

Searching the crime scene should be logical and systematical to be able to locate evidence. There are different
search patterns depending on the locale and size of the area to be able to collect evidence.

25
 One or two investigators start at the boundary at one end
of the scene and walk straight across to the other side
Line or Strip
and move a little farther along the border and walk
straight back to the other side.

Two people perform line search that originate from adjacent

corners and form perpendicular lines. One searcher moves in
Grid a north to south direction while simultaneously the other
search is conducted in an east to west direction. Both move
back and forth like the line or strip search pattern.

The investigator moves in an inward spiral from the

Spiral boundary to the center of the scene or in an outward
spiral from the center to the boundary.

Several people move from the boundary straight toward

Wheel or Ray the center of the scene (inward) or from the center
straight to the boundary outward.

The scene is divided into zones or quadrants and team

members are assigned to search each section. These
Quadrant or Zone
sections can be subdivided into smaller sections to be able
to search thoroughly. It is best for large crime scenes.

Investigators must be careful to avoid contact with surfaces

that may contain fingerprints. However, all areas of the
Vehicle vehicle, inside and outside, should be searched with equal
care or particular attention is needed to look for any
evidence resulting from a cross-transfer.

Night searches are difficult due to absence of natural light. In

indoors, artificial lights can be used. On outdoors, whenever
Night possible, the scene should be preserved until daylight. However,
if circumstances do not allow to wait for daylight, floodlights
should be used for search.

26
The purpose of crime scene search is to locate physical evidence and it will depend on the determination of the
circumstances of the crime. When the investigator located pieces of evidence with possible evidentiary value, it
should be documented and mark its location using an evidence marker.

The search ends when the team determines and collected all pertinent evidence. A final survey of the crime
scene will be conducted to assure that nothing was lost or left behind and retrieve all equipment used in the
search. When all of these were done, the crime scene is released to the proper authority.

The success of crime scene search depends on the skill of the investigator. Without this, no amount of
sophisticated instruments can help solve the crime.

DOCUMENTING THE CRIME SCENE

Investigators have only a limited time to process the crime scene on its original state. Therefore, complete
and proper documentation of all observations and location of each evidence must be observed and prepared.
D. NOTE-TAKING
Note-taking starts with the call to the crime scene investigator to report a crime scene that needs to be
processed. Pertinent information needed are: the caller, time and date of call, location to be processed and case
number. When the lead investigator arrives, the note-taker should record the time and date of arrival. This will
also include the persons present at the scene, their titles, office and contact number.

The tasks assigned to each member of the team processing the crime scene should be recorded including the
time and date of the start and end of the process. The crime scene investigator may need to ask the FR for
information he has gathered from witnesses.

During the search, each member marks the location of all evidence. Note should be recorded if any evidence
was disturbed and by whom. Prior to the collection of evidence, it must be fully described. This shall include
who and where it was found and how, who and when was it packaged.

If a victim is present at the crime scene, the investigator should record preliminary identification and condition
of the body. It should include the victim’s appearance, position of the body and visible wounds and identifying
marks. He should also make a list of objects found on the body. When the body is moved, it may show
previously unseen injuries and other physical evidence.
E. PHOTOGRAPHS
Photographs provides the visual evidence of the criminal investigation. It shows the original appearance of
the crime scene and all evidence, the position where it was collected and their physical relationship to one
another.

F. SKETCH
The sketch shows many features that compliments the notes and shows information that cannot be found in
photographs. It shows the relationship in space of all the items significant to the investigation. It illustrates the
location and measurement distance of collected evidence.
1. Rough sketch - an unpolished sketch containing an accurate depiction of dimensions of the scene
showing the location of all objects
2. Finished sketch - constructed with care, has aesthetic appearance and must be drawn to scale
reflecting information contained in the rough sketch

27
 3. Computer-aided drafting (CAD) - created using a software containing pre-drawn objects and allow
users to select a scale size

CRIME SCENE EVIDENCE

Crime scene investigator must recognize, collect and preserve the physical evidence found at the crime scene
and that has value in his investigation.

physical evidence - any object that can establish that a crime has or has not been committed or that can provide
a link between a crime, victim and perpetrator

G. COMMON KINDS OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

Every crime scene has to be treated on an individual basis. However, it is practical to know the common kinds
of physical evidence that will yield significant results after scientific examination. This informations will help
the investigator in establishing the nature and circumstances of a crime.

1. Inceptive evidence - used to show whether or not a crime has been committed
2. Identification evidence - the main objective is to provide compelling reasons of identity
3. Associative evidence - provides information on whether or not persons and objects have been in
contact with each other
4. Corroborative evidence - gives support to testimonial or other physical evidence

H. COLLECTING AND PACKAGING PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

Physical evidence can be anything from massive items to microscopic objects. Some are visible during crime
scene processing, and some are invisible to the naked eye or found after conducting a thorough examination in
the crime laboratory.
1. Evidence handling - crime scene investigators should preserve the collected evidence from the crime
scene until it was brought to the crime laboratory to maintain its integrity.
2. Packaging evidence - collected evidence should be placed in separate containers to prevent damage
and cross-contamination
3. Chain of custody - list of all people who came into possession of an evidence to establish its
continuity
4. Standard/Reference sample - known origin of sample used for comparison
5. Submission of evidence - evidence are submitted in crime laboratory for testing or examination

I. EXAMINATION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

Most physical evidence are examined by forensic scientists either for identification or comparison.
1. Identification - determination of the physical or chemical identity of a substance
2. Comparison - the process of determining the common origin of two or more specimen

a. Individual characteristic - properties of evidence that can be associated with a unique common
source exhibiting extremely high degree of certainty
b. Class characteristic - properties of evidence that can be associated only with a group and not with
a single source
CRIME SCENE RECONSTRUCTION
Crime scene reconstruction - the method used to develop a likely sequence of events at a crime scene by
observing and evaluating physical evidence and statements made by individuals involved with the incident

28
 MODULE 4

GUNPOWDER AND
EXPLOSIVES

GUNPOWDER
Gunpowder (black powder) is a mixture of sulfur (S), carbon (C in the form of charcoal) and potassium nitrate
(KNO3 or saltpeter). It is the earliest known chemical explosive. The sulfur and carbon act as fuels while the
potassium nitrate is an oxidizer.

2KNO3 + S + 3C → K2S + N2 + 3CO2

10KNO3 + 3S + 8C → 2K2CO3 + 3K2SO4 + 6CO2 + 5N2

Aluminum (Al) is added to enhance the burning property. When this powder is burned, combustion reaction
takes place:

4KNO3 + O2 + S + C → CO2 + SO2 + 2K2O + 4NO2

It is classified as a low explosive because it does not detonate but deflagrates (burns quickly) and does not burn
as a single reaction.

Those made with less expensive and more plentiful NaNO3 instead of KNO3 (in appropriate proportions) works
well too. However, it is more hygroscopic. Gunpowder made with NaNO3 must be kept sealed to remain stable.

I. COMPONENTS
The current standard composition through proportions by weight depends on the purpose of the powder.
Purpose of the Powder KNO3 C S
gunpowder 75% 15% 10%
blasting powder 70% 14% 16%
blasting powder made of NaNO3 40% 30% 30%
French war powder (1879) 75% 12.5% 12.5%
English war powder (1879) 75% 15% 10%
British Congreve rockets 62.4% 23.2% 14.4%
British Mark VII gunpowder 65% 20% 15%
Brown gunpowder 79% 18% 3%

Other formulation that is based on its use are:

 rocketry - uses a slower burn rate because it needs to accelerate the projectile for a much longer time
 weapons - needs a higher burn rate to accelerate the projectile in a much shorter distance
29
 cannons - uses lower burn rate powders because most would burst with higher burn rate powders

Other forms of gunpowder are:

 sulfur-free powders - sulfur was removed to prevent corrosion and to decrease the ignition temperature
thereby increasing the rate of combustion, having 70.5 parts of saltpeter and 29.5 parts of charcoal

6KNO3 + C7H4O → 3K2CO3 + 4CO2 + 2H2O + 3N2

 smokeless powders - mixture consists of nitrocellulose or glycerol nitrate combined with some stabilizers
having different burning properties that can generate higher pressures and may rupture older weapons
designed for black powder, with ranging color from brownish tan to yellow to white

II. GUNPOWDER RESIDUE

Gunpowder residue are components of the bullet, elements from cartridge cases and gun barrel where the bullet
passes. When a firearm is discharged, unburned and partially burned particles of gunpowder in addition to
smoke are propelled out of the barrel along with the bullet toward the target. If the muzzle of the weapon is
sufficiently close, these products are deposited onto the target.
 primer - flame produced when a low explosive containing the following explodes and is the basis for
examination:
a) initiating explosive - mercury fulminate
b) oxidizing agent - potassium chlorate or barium nitrate
c) fuel - antimony sulfide

A. PURPOSE OF GUNPOWDER RESIDUE EXAMINATION

Both hands of the suspect and the victim, the firearms and clothing must be examined to determine the
presence of gunpowder residues. Gunshot residue examination helps the investigator to determine:
 whether a person has discharged a firearm or not
 whether a firearm was discharged or not
 possible gunshot range or the distance of the shooter to the victim

B. DISTANCE DETERMINATION
The distribution of gunpowder particles and other discharge residues around the bullet hole permits a
distance determination. This can establish the proximity of the people involved in the shooting
incident.
 distance determination - an assessment of the distance from which a handgun or rifle was
fired

C. POWDER RESIDUES ON GARMENTS

When garments or other evidence relevant to a shooting are received in the crime laboratory, the
surfaces of all items are first examined microscopically for gunpowder residue. The clothing of a
firearms victim must not be cutted or teared in the area of the holes to prevent damage or disruption on
powder residues deposited around it. These particles may be identifiable by their characteristic colors,
sizes and shapes. In other situations, the analyst must use chemical tests.
 nitrites - one type of chemical product resulting from the incomplete combustion of smokeless
(nitrocellulose) powder
 Griess test - method for locating powder residues by transferring particles embedded on the
target surface to chemically treated gelatin-coated photographic paper

30
  sodium rhodizonate - second chemical test performed to detect any trace of lead residue
around the bullet hole followed by a series of oversprays of acid solutions giving a color
reaction turning lead particles pink then blue-violet

D. PRIMER RESIDUES ON THE HANDS

The firing of a weapon not only propels residues toward the target but also the shooter. Traces of these
residues are often deposited on the firing hand of the shooter and their detection can provide an
information whether an individual has fired a weapon recently.
 Detection of primer residues or dermal nitrate test - determination of powder residues on
the hands using chemical tests that could detect unburned gunpowder or nitrates by applying
hot paraffin wax and after drying, it will be tested with diphenylamine. A blue color indicates a
positive reacton for nitrates.
 Tests for primer residues - determination whether a person has fired or handled a weapon or
has been near a discharged firearm is made by measuring the presence and amount of barium
and antimony on the suspect’s hands.

E. FACTORS AFFECTING THE PRESENCE OF GUNPOWDER RESIDUES

The factors that can affect the amount and distribution of gunshot residue (GSR) on skin and clothing
include:
 firing distance
 length and diameter of the firearm barrel
 characteristics of the gunpowder
 angle between the firearm barrel and target
 characteristics of the cartridge
 the environment (moisture, wind, heat)
 type of clothing
 intermediate targets
 characteristics of the target (tissue type, putrefaction, blood marks)
 use of gloves

F. COMPONENTS OF GUNPOWDER RESIDUE

1. Primer or lead residue
Primer elements may be easier to detect in residues because they do not get as hot as that of powder.
 Major primer elemental composition: lead (Pb), barium (Ba) and antimony (Sb)
 Trace element: aluminum (Al), sulfur (S), tin (Sn), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), chlorine (Cl)
and silicon (Si)
 Inorganic compound: mercury fulminates (present in most ammunition manufactured in
Eastern Europe and used in Middle East)
In addition, these residues gradually adhere to the discharged bullets. Thus, primer residue can be
found in targets or wounds at considerable distance from the muzzle up to 200 meters.

2. Gunpowder residue
 contains up to 23 organic compounds
 nitrocellulose is virtually always present along with nitrate and nitrogen containing compound
such as diphenylamine or DPA (stabilizer in powder)

31
 3. Composition of cartridge case, bullet coating and metal jacket
 cartridge and primer cases: brass (7:3 copper-zinc)
 bullet cores: lead, barium, antimony and few iron alloy
 bullet jackets: brass (9:1 copper-zinc) and some are iron, aluminum or nickel alloy

EXPLOSIVES
The ready accessibility of potentially explosive chemicals and other explosive substances has provided any
person or organization a lethal weapon bent on but not limited to, revenge, destruction of commercial operations
or just plain mischief. These incidents typically involve homemade explosives and incendiary devices base on
the imagination and ingenuity of the bomber.
 explosives - compounds that are unstable and break down with the sudden release of large amounts of
energy
An explosive consists of an explosive material or mixture, a container and an ignition source.

I. EXPLOSION
Explosion or bomb investigation requires close cooperation among a group of highly specialized individuals
trained and experienced in bomb disposal, bomb-site investigation, forensic analysis and criminal investigation.
The criminalist must detect and identify explosive chemicals recovered from the crime scene as well as identify
the detonating mechanisms.
 explosion - the sudden conversion of chemical or mechanical energy into kinetic energy caused by
combustion with the release of heat, light and mechanical shock with the rapid expansion of gases
 explosion limit, flammability limit - the highest or lowest concentration of a flammable gas or vapor in air
that will explode or burn readily when ignited and is usually expressed as a volume percent of gas or vapor
in air

A. CHEMISTRY OF EXPLOSIONS
The distinguishing characteristic of an explosion is the rapid rate of the reaction. The sudden build-up
of expanding gas pressure at the origin of the explosion produces the violent physical disruption of the
surrounding environment.
Explosives must have its own source of oxygen because they undergo a rapid exothermic oxidation
reaction producing large quantities of gases. Detonation occurs so rapidly that oxygen in the air cannot
participate in the reaction.

 oxidizing agent - substance that supplies oxygen to a chemical reaction

Oxygen-containing potassium nitrate acts as an oxidizing agent for the charcoal and sulfur fuels. As heat is
applied to blackpowder, oxygen is liberated from potassium nitrate and simultaneously combines with charcoal
and sulfur to produce heat and gases (symbolized by ↑), as represented in the following chemical equation:
2KNO3 + S + 3C → K2S + N2↑ + 3CO2↑

Some explosives have their oxygen and fuel components combined within one molecule. For example, the
chemical structure of nitroglycerin, the major constituent of dynamite, combines carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and
oxygen:

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When nitroglycerin detonates, large quantities of energy are released as
the molecules decomposes, and the oxygen recombines to produce large
volumes of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water.

B. TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES
Explosives are classified as high and low explosives base on the speed of its decomposition.
 deflagration (burning) - the speed of decomposition in low explosive characterized by very
rapid oxidation reaction producing heat, light and a subsonic or low-intensity pressure wave
that can disrupt the surroundings
 detonation - an extremely rapid oxidation reaction creating a violent disruptive effect and an
intense supersonic or high-speed shock wave breaking the chemical bonds within the explosive
charge of high explosive leading to a new instantaneous build-up of heat and gases
1. Low explosives - decomposes relatively slow with a velocity of detonation less than 1,000 m/s that
produces a propelling or throwing action
a. black powder - a relatively stable mixture of potassium nitrate or sodium nitrate with
charcoal and sulfur. Unconfined, it merely burns. It is commonly used in safety fuses carrying
a flame to an explosive charge. When confined, it becomes lethal.
 safety fuse - a cord containing black powder wrapped in a fabric or plastic casing used to
carry a flame at a uniform rate to an explosive charge that allows a person adequate time
to leave the site before explosion
b. smokeless powder - the safest and most powerful low explosive
 single-base powder - consists of nitrated cotton or nitrocellulose
 double-base powder - nitroglycerin mixed with nitrocellulose
 triple-base powder - nitrocellulose + nitroglycerin + nitroguanidine
c. chlorate mixtures - an oxidizing agent mixed with fuels such as carbon, sulfur, starch,
phosphorus and magnesium filings wherein it may also be ignited by the heat generated from a
chemical reaction
d. gas-air mixtures - created when a considerable quantity of natural gases capes into a confined
area and mixes with a sufficient amount or air which when ignited, results in simultaneous
combustion and sudden production of large volumes of gases and heat
 mixtures of air and a gaseous fuel explode or burn only within a limited concentration
range
 rich mixtures - mixtures at or near the upper concentration limit explode with some gas
remains unconsumed because there is not enough oxygen to complete the combustion. As
air rushes back into the origin of the explosion, it combines with the residual hot gas,
producing a fire that is characterized by a whoosh sound and is often more destructive
than the explosion preceding it.
 lean mixtures - mixtures near the lower end of the limit generally causes an explosion
without causing accompanying damage due to fire

2. High explosives - an explosive with a velocity of detonation greater than 1,000 m/s to 8,500 m/s
producing a smashing or shattering effect and is classified based on their sensitivity to heat, shock,
or friction
a. primary explosives (primers) - are ultrasensitive to heat, shock or friction, under normal
conditions detonate violently instead of burning and is used to detonate other explosives
through a chain reaction, the major ingredients of blasting caps and rarely used as the main
charge of a homemade bomb
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  blasting caps - small explosive devices used to detonate larger explosives
 examples: mercury fulminate (Hg(CNO)2), silver fulminate (AgCNO), lead azide (Pb(N3)2),
lead styphnate (PbC6HN3O8), diazodinitrophenol (C6H2N4O5) and silver azide (AgN3)
b. secondary explosives - more stable and relatively insensitive to heat, shock or friction and
normally burn rather than detonate when small quantities are ingnited in open air and
comprises mostly of high explosives
 dynamite - created in 1867 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, searching for a method to
desensitize nitroglycerin, found that when kieselguhr, a variety of diatomaceous earth
absorbing a large portion of nitroglycerin, it became less sensitive but still retained its
explosive force and later decided to use wood pulp as an absorbent instead because
kieselguhr is a heat-absorbing material
 straight dynamite series - pulp dynamite used when a quick shattering is desired which
includes sodium nitrate (oxidizing agent) and a small percentage of calcium carbonate
(stabilizer) and is rated by strength (determined by the weight percentage of nitroglycerin
in the formula)
 ammonium nitrate - mixture of oxygen-rich ammonium nitrate with a fuel to form a
low-cost and very stable explosive
 water gels - have a consistency resembling set gelatin or gel-type toothpaste characterized
by water-resistant nature and are employed for all types of blasting under wet conditions
based on formulations of ammonium nitrate and sodium nitrate gelled with a natural
polysaccharide and a combustible material is mixed into the gel to serve as fuel
 emulsion - consist of two distinct phases, an oil phase and a water phase wherein a
droplet of a supersaturated solution of ammonium nitrates is surrounded by a hydrocarbon
serving as a fuel or a typical emusion consists of water, one or more inorganic nitrate
oxidizers, oil and emulsifying agents
 microspheres or microballoons - micron-sized glass, resin or ceramic spheres emulsion
content that controls the explosive’s sensitivity and detonation velocity
 ANFO (ammonium nitrate fuel oil) - ammonium nitrate soaked in fuel oil
 TATP (triacetone triperoxide) - a friction and impact sensitive improvised homemade
explosive prepared by reacting the common ingredients of acetone and hydrogen peroxide
in the presence of an acid catalyst which when confined in a container is extremely potent
 RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine) - the most popular and powerful military
explosive in the form of a pliable plastic of doughlike consistency and is a content of
composition C-4
 TNT (trinitrotoluene) - stable to friction and impact, does not react with water or metals
but can be converted to unstable compounds by treatment with base
 Tetryl (tetrile nitramine, trinitrophenylmethylnitramine, 2,4,6-trinitrophenyl-N-
methylnitramine) - an off-white to yellow solid commonly used as a booster explosive
because it tolerates compression well or used to make detonators that can be ignited by
flame, friction, and shock wherein in large quantities, it may detonate rather than burn
 military dynamite - composed of RDX and TNT
 PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate or penthrite) - used as explosive core in a
detonating cord
 detonating cord (primacord) - a cordlike explosive containing a core of high-explosive
material used to connect a series of explosive charges so that they will detonate
simultaneously
 detonators - initiates explosion with bombs made of high explosives usually blasting caps
composed of copper or aluminum cases filled with lead azide as an initiating charge and
PETN or RDX as a detonating charge

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  blasting caps - initiated by means of a burning safety fuse or by an electrical current

C. INCENDIARY WEAPONS
Incendiary weapons (IEDs or improvised explosive devices) - made of the following:
1. flammable material - include common household chemicals
2. container - include light bulbs, propane and butane cylinders, plastic pipes, bottles and can
3. ignition source - include matches, gas lighters, fireworks, roadway flares and electrical
components and devices and may be paired with timing devices, sensors, radio-operated
remote control, or a cellphone

Examples of IEDs:
 pipe bomb - consists of black powder, the pipe’s seam will split and its face plates on the capped ends will
be pushed out
 Molotov cocktail - consists of a glass bottle containing flammable liquid and a rag as a wick
 black powder rolled in paper with a string lead

D. DETECTION, COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Undetonated residues of the explosive remaining at the site of the explosion should be collected.
The most obvious characteristic of a high or contained low explosive is the presence of a crater at the origin of
the blast. Once it has been located, all loose soil and other debris must immediately be removed from the
interior of the hole and preserve for laboratory analysis. Other good sources of explosive residues are objects
located near the origin of detonation.

All materials collected for examination must be placed in airtight sealed containers and labeled with pertinent
information. Plastic bags should not be used to store evidence because some explosive residues can actually
escape and sharp-edged ojects may pierce its sides.

Materials for examination are examined chemically or microscopically to detect unconsumed explosive
particles. The recovered debris is thoroughly rinsed with acetone. Others are to be rinsed with water.

1. Color test for explosives

Reagent
Substance
Griess Diphenylamine Alcoholic KOH
chlorate no color blue no color
nitrate pink to red blue no color
nitrocellulose pink blue-black no color
nitroglycerin pink to red blue no color
PETN pink to red blue no color
RDX pink to red blue no color
TNT no color no color red
tetryl pink to red blue red-violet

 Griess test - test for nitrites published in 1858 by Peter Griess

 diphenylamine test - test for oxidizing ions, especially nitrates, nitrites, chlorates, and ferric ions
 alcoholic KOH - in addition, 2,4-dinitrotoluene results in a yellow color

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 aniline hydrochloride test - test for chlorates and chlorites, prepared using aniline acidified with
hydrochloric acid and activated potassium chlorate showing blue color
 Nessler’s reagent (mercuric iodide solution) - the solution is a faint yellow in color used to detect the
presence of ammonium ions showing orange yellow/brown precipitate
 anthrone test - test for carbohydrates including sugars and starches like those in nitrocellulose showing
blue-green color
 Reinsch test - test for inorganic explosive residue containing bismuth, thallium, antimony and tin

Reagent
Substance Additional test
Barium chloride Silver nitrate
sulfate ions white precipitate
chloride ions white precipitate
carbonates white precipitate white precipitate re-dissolved with acetic acid
sulfates and other off-white to yellow off-white to yellow concentrated ammonium hydroxide
halide ions precipitate precipitate will re-dissolve halide precipitates

However, non-explosive materials containing nitrites and nitrates will also yield a presumptive positive result.
Therefore, all color tests must be confirmed with instrumental chemical tests.

2. Microcrystalline test for explosives

 Cropen test - used to indicate the presence of chlorates and perchorates forming insoluble crystals
a. perchlorates form blue needle crystals, some with a purplish tinge that may grow singly or in
blundles and exhibit blunt or split ends
b. chlorate crystals form blue rosettes or single crystals, some of which have a slight purplish tinge
 the chlorate needles are smaller and thinner than those of perchlorates and are slower to develop
 high concentration leads to small crystal formation
 impurities may lead to unusual and distorted crystal formation
 reference standard is used to verify the positive result
 old reagents may not produce the expected crystals

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 Basis of Separation
Image or Set-up Use of Separation Technique
Separation Technique
Handpicking is a separation technique in which
unwanted particles are manually removed from a
mixture. It requires picking out chemicals and
size handpicking manually separating them from others. When
objects vary in color, shape, or weight, the
handpicking procedure might be used.

This approach is typically used during agricultural

harvesting. When wheat stalks are harvested, they
are often dried. By pounding the dry stalks to
size threshing
shake off the dried grains, the grain is separated
from the stalks and pulverized into the floor.

Wind or blowing air is used to separate heavier

and lighter components of a combination. Farmers
typically use winnowing to remove lighter husk
size winnowing particles from heavier grain seeds.

Sieving is used to separate mixtures containing

largely various sizes of components. It permits
small wheat particles to flow through the sieve's
size sieving
pores while larger particles remain on the sieve.

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 Evaporation is a process for extracting a mixture,
most commonly a solution of a solvent and a
soluble substance. The solution is heated until the
organic solvent evaporates, turning into a gas and
generally leaving behind the solid residue in this
change in evaporation
physical state procedure.

Distillation is done when a mixture consists of two

or more pure liquids. When the mixture is heated,

change in the volatile component evaporates first. The vapor

distillation
physical state is collected in a liquid condition after passing
through a condenser.

Filtration is the most typical method of separating

a liquid from an insoluble material. Filtration is

size filtration performed to remove solid particles from the

liquid in this case. Filtering agents such as
filtering paper or other materials are commonly
utilized.
Sedimentation is the process by which heavier
impurities in a liquid, usually water, settle to the
partitioning
between sedimentation bottom of the container containing the mixture. It
phases takes some time to complete the process.

partitioning decantation Decantation is the process of separating liquid

between
from solid and other insoluble (non-mixing)
phases
liquids by eliminating the liquid layer on top from
the solid or liquid layer underneath. After pouring
away the top layer, tilt the mixture to complete the

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 procedure.

Magnetic Separation is a waste management

technique in which magnets are used to extract
difference in metal from refuse. This is most frequent in single
magnetic
physical
separation and mixed recycling streams since the materials
properties
are collected and segregated before processing.

Chromatography is the separation of components

in a mixture. To start the entire process, the
partitioning mixture is dissolved in a material known as the
between chromatography
phases mobile phase, which transports it through a second
substance known as the stationary phase.

Centrifugation is a technique for separating

particles from a solution based on their size,
mass or shape, density, medium viscosity, and rotor speed.
centrifugation
density
In a centrifuge tube, the particles are suspended in
a liquid media.
Sublimation is a separation process in which a
component immediately transitions from the solid
to the gas state. The component does not travel
change in
sublimation
physical state through the liquid phase. As a result, it is utilized
to depict a solid-to-gas transition between a
substance's states.
Chemical precipitation is the process of
transforming a solution into a solid by changing
change in
chemical precipitation the component into an insoluble form or by
state supersaturating the solution.

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 Extraction is a typical method for isolating a target
chemical in organic chemistry. A solute is
transported from one phase to another during the

partitioning extraction process to separate it from unreacted

between extraction starting ingredients or contaminants
phases

Dialysis is a separation process that uses selective

and passive diffusion via a semi-permeable
membrane to remove tiny, undesirable chemicals
size dialysis
from macromolecules in solution.

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