Forensic Chemistry - is defined as that branch of Chemistry which deals with

application of chemical principles in the solution of crimes.

Forensic Chemistry - is the Science that deals with the study and application of
chemical principles in the solution of problem that arises in connection with the
administration of justice.
Forensic Science - deals with application of Chemistry in the identification of evidence,
its physical and chemical properties.
It also includes the collection, preservation, examination and study of blood, semen, and
other body fluids; examination of dangerous drugs; examination of body fluid to
determine the presence of dangerous drugs; alcohol (liquor) test, examination of fake
products for unfair, trade competition; arson investigation; macro etching examination;
bullet trajectory; ultraviolet examination, tools and other marks; gunshot residues
(gunpowder nitrates, paraffin test; distance determination, and firearms examination);
and principles and examination of explosives, hair and textiles fibers; chemical aspects
of document and examination; problems on glass fragments and glass fracture,
moulage, metallurgy and petrography as applied to crime investigation.
Forensic Chemistry also includes the study and examination of Deoxyribonucleic acid or
DNA for brevity.
Practice of Forensic Chemistry
The work of a Forensic Chemist is divided into four stages, namely:
1. Collection or reception of the specimen
2. The actual examination
3. The communication of the results of the examination
4 Court appearance.
Factors that must be considered when collecting specimen for examination:
a. Sufficiency of Samples
As much as possible, the investigator should collect sufficient amount of specimen for
examination. This will make the Chemist confident that in case of doubtful result, he or
she can still have enough samples to repeat or to proceed to the succeeding
examinations.
b. Standard for comparison
When the evidence in question is located in or added with the foreign substance, a
sample of such foreign substance must be submitted for analysis. For instance, if blood
is found on linoleum, a sample of the unstained linoleum must be submitted together
with the stained portion. In cases of adulteration or unfair trade competition, a genuine
sample must be submitted for comparison. In the examination of hair, textile fiber, soil,
etc., standard samples must be submitted for comparison.
C. Maintenance of Individuality
Each piece of evidence must be collected and preserved as a separate sample. There
must be no mixing or intermingling of specimen/s collected from different locations, as
well as those of standard specimen/s.
d. Labelling and Sealing
It is a well-settled rule that evidence will have no value in court in spite of the good
report of the expert if the specimen cannot be identified by reason of improper labelling
Hence, each sample must be labelled properly. Small fragments should be enclosed in
proper specimen boxes/container and the boxes should be sealed. The label should
include information concerning the nature and source of the sample, date and time of
collection, case number, if any, and name of the person collecting the sample.
Role of Forensic Chemist in the Scientific Investigation
A Forensic Chemist, as a man of science, performs laboratory examinations on physical
evidence submitted to the crime laboratory in order to expedite the investigation of a
crime by the investigating party.
He/she has the following responsibilities:
1. Conducts quantitative and qualitative determination of abused drugs as well as
volatile substances.
2. Conducts chemical examination of explosives and/or explosive ingredients.
3. Conducts examination of paraffin cast and firearms to determine the presence of
gunpowder nitrates.
4 Conducts gunpowder examination on clothing for possible gunshot range.
5. Conducts chemico-toxicological examination of human internal organs, gastric
contents, blood, water, food sample and other substances.
6. Conducts examination of fake products in cases of unfair trade competition.
7. Conducts blood alcohol determinations.
8. Examines urine samples and other body fluids for the presence of abused drugs.
9. Conducts researches related to cases being examined.
10. Testifies and gives expert opinion in court.
11. Gives lectures on Forensic Chemistry and Chemical- toxicology to various Schools,
universities, police training centers and investigating units.
12. Responds to queries of all investigating units and render expert opinion on matters
related to the application of chemical principles for the purpose of assisting investigators
to develop investigative leads.
Six Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry
1. Go Slowly
Good work cannot be hurried, therefore, take all the time necessary to make the case
complete no matter how urgent it may appear.
2. Be thorough
Make careful and minute examination of everything and do not be satisfied with a
quantitative analysis if a quantitative one is possible. It always pays to do too much
rather than too little and it is difficult to foresee what will or will not be required in court.
3. Take Notes
Keep a full neat and clean record of everything seen and done.
4. Consult others
Many cases will lead the expert into paths with which he is not familiar and when this
happens he should consult those who know better.
5. Use imagination
An expert with a wide and uncontrollable imagination is considered as the most
dangerous creature. Though his being imaginative sometimes useful, an expert witness
does nave to be solely imaginative but he has to skilled in the field of Forensic Science.
He must bear witness within the limits of science.
Equipment’s used in the Forensic Examination
The following are some of the most common laboratory equipment’s used in forensic
examination
1. HPLC (High Powered Liquid Chromatography)
This scientific equipment is used for the qualitative and quantitative determination of a
volatile or non-volatile compound based on the chromatographic separation of its
components.
2. Ultra-Violet spectrophotometer
It is used for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic compounds.
3. EMIT (Enzyme Multiple Immuno Assay Technique)
It is used for Screening of abused urine samples.
4. SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope)
This scientific equipment is used for the physical identification of various questioned
specimens. It is a software-controlled digital scanning electron microscope to produce
sticking images over a wide range of magnification (3x3,000,000x) on rough or covered
surface of minute specimen such as hair, fibers, paint, particles, drugs, metal, etc.
5. FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy)
Used for the identification of pure organic substances. It identifies organic substances
particularly abused and explosive ingredients based on their characteristic functional
groups. In layman's term, the resulting spectrum could be referred to as the fingerprints
of the substance.

PRESERVATION AND SAFEKEEPING OF EVIDENCE

The following are the guidelines in the proper preservation and safekeeping of
evidence:
1. Proper chain of custody shall always be observed.
2. All examined pieces of evidence (drugs and other paraphernalia, explosives,
firearms, etc.) shall be personally turned over by the examiner on case to the evidence
custodian. The latter, in turn, shall execute its documentation by recording all received
as well as released evidence for court presentation. No examiners shall keep in their
possession evidence once examined.
3. Evidence shall be properly placed in suitable dry containers for proper preservation
and shall be placed inside the concrete evidence room.
Firearms evidence shall be kept in a separate evidence room especially designed for
the purpose. However, hazardous evidence such as explosives and other inflammable
evidence are photographed after examination with its corresponding case number
before turning it over to Explosive Ordnance Disposal Unit ODU) with proper receipt for
safekeeping or proper disposal.
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC CRIME LABORATORY IN THE PHILIPPINES
February 14, 1829-Massacre occurred in Chicago. Then a group of public-minded
individuals was responsible for the establishment of a scientific crime laboratory in that
city which today has marked its place in the historical annals of police science.
March 31, 1876 - Creation of "Medicos Titulares by virtue of Royal Decree No. 188 of
Spain. For every province, a Forensic Physician was assigned to perform public
sanitary duties and at the same time provide medico-legal aids to the administration of
justice.
December 15, 1884 - Governor General Joaquin Javellar created a committee to study
the mineral waters of Luzon and appointed Anacleto del Rosario as chemist.
September 13, 1887 - Establishment of Laboratorio Municipal de Manila" under the
inspection of the Direction General de Administrations Civil and the control of the
"Gobierno de Provincias.The function of the laboratory was to make analysis not only of
food, water and others from the standpoint of public health and legal medicine but also
of specimen for clinical purposes.
1894 -"Laboratorio Medico-Legal was created under the dependency of the judicial
branch of the government and the laboratory functioning, under the direction of a
physician and assisted by a pharmacist-chemist.
1895 -Antonio Luna established a clinical laboratory where some original works in
chemistry were done. Unfortunately, all prospects of the advancement of the scientific
laboratories were paralyzed as a result of the revolution in 1896.
1899 - The first scientific laboratory was established in a small building on the banks of
Pasig River with Lt. R.P. Strong of the US Army in charge.
1901 -Actual scientific work began under the initiative of Dean C. Worcester by virtue of
Act No. 156 approved by the Civil Commission.
July 01, 1901 - The Bureau of Government Laboratories was created for the purpose of
performing biological and chemical examinations as well as for the production of
vaccines and sera.
March 11, 1915 - The Department of Legal Medicine was created pursuant to the
resolution of the Board of Regents. The department took charge of the courses of legal
medicines and its branches in the College of Medicine and Law.
October 14, 1924 -Through the passage of Act No. 3043 by the Philippine Legislature,
the same Department of Legal Medicine became a branch of the Department of Justice
and at the same time an integral part of the University of the Philippines.
December 01, 1937-The "Division of Investigation was created under Commonwealth
Act No. 181 with two medico-legal officers and a chemist. The Medco-Legal Section of
the Division of Investigation started the definite movement towards the creation of
scientific crime detection laboratory.
September 1945 - The National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) was organized with the
Division of Investigation as the nucleus. The chemical laboratory of the Medico-Legal
section was expanded into a Forensic Chemistry Division.
At present, we have the
1. Philippine National Police (PNP) Crime Laboratory and
2. The National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) Laboratory.
Crime laboratory - also called forensic laboratory, facility where analyses are
performed on evidence generated by crimes or, sometimes, civil infractions.
Crime laboratories can investigate physical, chemical, biological, or digital evidence and
often employ specialists in a variety of disciplines, including behavioral forensic science,
forensic pathology, forensic anthropology, crime-scene investigation, and ballistics.
SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
Evidence, defined.
Evidence is a proof of allegation, it is a means sanctioned by law of ascertaining in
judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact (Sec Rule 128, Revised Rules
On Evidence).
Scientific evidence - may be defined as the means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining
in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact, wherein scientific
knowledge is necessary. Such scientific evidence must have such a relation to the fact
in issue as to induce belief in its existence or non existence.
Evidence may be (a) direct; (b) indirect, which includes circumstantial evidence; and
(c) hearsay.
(a) Direct evidence is that which the senses perceive. Any fact to which a witness
testifies based on what he saw, heard, smelled, touched or tasted, is direct.
(b) Circumstantial evidence is a kind of evidence which seeks to establish a
conclusion by inferences from the facts proven.
Under the present law, circumstantial evidence is sufficient for conviction if:
 (a) there is more than one circumstance;
 (b) the facts from which the inferences are derived are proven; and
 (c) the combination of all the circumstances is such as to produce
conviction beyond reasonable doubt.
c) Hearsay evidence is a statement made by a witness on the authority of another and
not from his own personal knowledge or observation.
Hearsay evidence is inadmissible except on the following
1. dying declaration
2. res gestae
3. declaration against interest
4. act or declaration about pedigree
5. family reputation or tradition regarding pedigree
6. common reputation
7. part of res gestae
8. entries in the course of business
9. entries in official records
10. learned treaties, and
11. testimony or deposition at a former proceeding.

Forms of Scientific Evidence

(a) Real or Autoptic evidence - is that evidence which is addressed to the senses of
the court. lt is not limited to that which can be known by the sense of vision but extends
to those which are perceived by the senses of hearing, taste, smell or touch.
(b) Testimonial Evidence - An expert may be called on the witness stand to answer all
question propounded by both parties in the case.
(C) Documentary evidence - Any written evidence presented by an expert in court
which is relevant to the subject matter in dispute and not excluded by the Rules of
Court. Formal written report, expert opinion, certificates and dispositions included in this
group.
WITNESS
Witness defined.
A witness in court may be an ordinary or expert witness.
Under the law, an ordinary witness must have the following qualifications:
1. He must have the organ and power to perceive.
2. Perceiving can make known his perception to others.
3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for by law, 123 Rules of Court.
The opinion of a witness regarding a question of science, art or trade, where he is
skilled therein, may be received in evidence.
This kind of evidence is called the testimony of an expert witness.
Distinctions between an Ordinary and an Expert Witness
ORDINARY WITNESS
1.Can only state what his senses have perceived.
2.May not be skilled on the line he is testifying.
3.Cannot testify on things or fact he has not perceived except those provided for by law.
EXPERT WITNESS
1.State what he has perceived and also give his opinion, deductions or conclusions to
his perception.
2.Must be skilled in the art, science or trade he is testifying.
3.Testify on things which he has not seen by giving his opinions, deductions or
conclusions on the statements of facts.
Qualifications of an Expert Witness
(a) the degree of learning of the witness;
(b) the basis and logic of his conclusion; and
(c) the other proof of case. (U.S. v. Tiono 3 Phil 213; Samson v. Corrales Tan Quintin,
44 Phil 573)
DRUGS
Drug defined.
Drug is a chemical substance that brings about physical, physiological, behavioral
and/or psychological change in a person taking it.
All medicines are drugs, but not all drugs are medicine drug.
Medicinal Drugs
A substance which when taken into the human body cures illness and/or relieves
signs/symptoms of disease.
Dangerous Drugs
A substance affecting the central nervous system which when taken into the human
body brings about physical, emotional or behavioral changes in a person taking it.
Drug Abuse
Any non-medical use of drugs that cause physical, psychological, legal, economic, or
social damage to the user or to people affected by the user's behavior.
Abuse usually refers to illegal drugs but may also be applicable to drugs that are
available legally, such as prescribed medications and certain over-the-counter
medications.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
According to origin:
a. Natural Drugs - are active ingredients, secondary metabolic products of plants and
other living systems that may be isolated by extraction.
Examples:
Raw opium
Marijuana
Coca bush
b. Synthetic Drugs - are artificially produced substances, synthesized in the laboratory
for the illicit market, which are almost wholly manufactured from chemical compounds in
illicit laboratories.
Examples:
Methamphetaminne
Barbiturates
According to Legal classification:
a. RA O165 (Comprehensive Dangerous Drug Act of 2002)
b. PD 1619 (Volatile Substances)
C. RA 6425 (Classified as: Regulated and Prohibited)
Under RA 9165, otherwise known as the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002,
the term prohibited and regulated was changed into dangerous drug with the following
classification:
1. Immediate precursors-a chemical substance used in the clandestine
manufacturing process becomes incorporated in full or in part into the final
molecules of a substance under international control.
2. Essential chemicals - chemical substance used as reagent or solvent in the
illegal manufacture of controlled substances.
3. Narcotic, psychotropic and designer
According to International Classification:
a. Narcotics substance
b. Psychotropic substances
c. Designer drugs
According to Pharmacological Classification
(Effects):
a. Stimulants
b. Hallucinogens
c. Depressants
d. Inhalants

STIMULANTS -are drugs which increase alertness of physical disposition.

Example:
Amphetamine
Street Name:
Eye opener, lid poppers, peppills, uppers, hearts
What it is:
Reduces appetite
Relieves mental depression
Comfort fatigue and sleepiness.
How Taken:
Orally as tablet or capsule
Effects:
General:
wakefulness, increased alertness/initiative
Toxic:
from restlessness to coma and death
Dangers:
Dependence, overdose,
violent/bizarre behavior
Example:
Shabu (Methamphetamine
Hydrochloridel)
Street Name:
Poor man's cocaine, S, shabs, ubas, siopao, sha, ice
What it is:
White odorless crystal/ crystalline powder with a bitter numbing taste
How Taken:
Ingestion, inhalation chasing the dragon), sniffing, injection, smoked
Effects:
General:
anxiety, irritability, irrational behavior
Long Term:
psychosis similar too schizophrenia, difficulty in concentrating, loss of interest in sex
Physical:
chest pain, irregular heartbeat, hypertension, convulsion, death
Dangers:
Injection from contaminated needles may lead to risk of infections, phlebitis, septicemia,
AlDS, etc.
HALLUCINOGENS - are drugs which affect sensation, thinking, self-awareness and
emotion.
Changes in time and space perception, delusions (false beliefs) and hallucinations may
be mild or overwhelming, depending on dose and quality of drugs.
Example:
Ecstacy
Street Name:
XTC, Adam, essence, E, herbals
How Taken:
Swallowing or inhalation
Effects:
Exaggerated emotions, makes HR and BP hike up, dries the mouth, stiffens arms, legs,
jaw; dilates pupils of the eyes, causes faintness, chills sweating and nausea.
Dangers:
It can really kill!
Example:
LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)
Street Name:
Lucy in the sky with diamonds, wedding bells, acid, white sugar, lightning, cubes, brain
eaters
What it is:
A semi-synthetic alkaloid substance extracted from a fungus which grows on rye, wheat,
and other grains odorless, tasteless, colorless
Effects:
Psychological:
vivid hallucinations, confusion, blurring and distinction between conscious and
unconscious thought, etc.
Physical:
dilated pupils, flushed face, increased BP, etc.
Dangers:
May cause abnormal amount of breakage of chromosomes of WBCs that carry genes,
which may result to miscarriages and birth defects.
Example:
Marijuana
Street Name:
Mary Jane, Flower, pampapogi, brownines, damo, pot, tea, joint, Dope
Effects:
lmmediate:
faster heartbeat, bloodshot eyes, dry mouth
Long Term:
chest pain, temporary loss of fertility, cancer, marijuana burn-out.
Dangers:
Slows down user's mental and psychomotor activities, long-term use may lead to
psychological dependence may lead to cancer.
DEPRESSANTS - are drugs which depress or lower the functions of the Central
Nervous System

Types of Depressants:
Narcotics - a drug which induces sleep (Hypnotics) or stupor and relieve pain
(Analgesics)
 Something that soothes, or causes a sensation of mental numbness
 This includes Opium, Opiates, Heroin, Morphine, and Codeine
Tranquilizers - a substance that reduces anxiety, ease tension and relax muscles.
Sedatives and Hypnotics - calm the nerves, reduce tension and induce sleep.
Example: Barbiturates, alcohol
INHALANTS- these are any liquid, solid or mixed substance that has the property of
releasing toxic psychoactive) vapors or fumes.
Example: solvent, glue, gasoline, kerosene, paint, thinner, naphthalene.
What are considered Dangerous Drugs?
Dangerous Drug - is a substance affecting the central nervous system which when
taken into the human body brings about physical, emotional or behavioral changes in
person taking it.
It is a substance which when taken into the human body alters mood, perception,
feelings and behavior.

Under Republic Act 6425, otherwise known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of 197/2,
dangerous drugs are classified into three (3) main categories, namely:
A. Prohibited Drugs
B. Regulated Drugs
C. Volatile Substances
A. Prohibited Drug, which includes opium and its active components and derivatives,
such as heroin and morphine; coca leaf and its derivatives, principally cocaine; alpha
and beta eucaine; hallucinogenic drugs such as mescaline, lysergic acid diethylanmide
(LSD) and other substances producing similar effects; India hemp and its derivatives; all
preparations made from any of the foregoing; and other drugs and chemical
preparations, whether natural or synthetic, with the physiological effects of a narcotic or
a hallucinogenic drug (As amended by B.P. 179 dated March 2, 1982).
B. Regulated Drug, which includes self-inducing sedatives, such as secobarbital,
Phenobarbital, pentobarbital, barbital, amobarbital and any other drug which contains a
salt or a derivative of a salt of barbituric acid; any salt, isomer or salt of an isomer, of
amphetamine, such as Benzedrine or Dexedrine, or any drug which produces a
physiological action similar to amphetamine; and hypnotic drugs, such as
methaqualone, nitrazepam or any other compound producing similar physiological
effects (As amended by PD No. 1683 dated March 14, 1980).
C. Volatile Substance, Liquid, solid or mixed substances having the property of
releasing toxic vapors or fumes or any chemical substance which when sniffed, smelled,
inhaled, or introduced into the physiological system of the body produce/induce a
condition of intoxication, inebriation, excitement, stupefaction, etc.

Republic Act 9165, otherwise known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, gives a
single definition for prohibited and regulated drugs. The old law defines the term
"dangerous drugs" as pertaining to either "prohibited drug" or "regulated drug".

"Drug Dependence" - means a state of psychic or physical dependence, or both, on a

dangerous drug, arising in a person following administration or use of that drug on a
periodic or continuous basis.
Characteristics of Drug Dependency
1. Physical dependence- the body's physical system changes until the body needs that
particular drug in order to function.
2. Mental or psychological, dependence need of drug in order to feel good, to get by
or feel normal.
3. Idiosyncrasy or side effect.

"Use"-refers to the act of injecting, intravenously or intramuscularly, or of consuming,

either by chewing, smoking, sniffing, eating swallowing, drinking, or otherwise
introducing into the physiological system of the body, any of the dangerous drugs.
"Sell"- means the act of giving a dangerous drug, whether for money or any other
material consideration.

EXAMINATION OF DANGEROUS DRUGS

Drug Identification -is a branch of Forensic Chemistry that deals with the scientific
examination of drugs and volatile substances.
Drug identification is usually conducted by a forensic chemist/chemical officer to
determine the presence of dangerous drug on submitted specimens.
The Forensic Chemist/chemical officer also conducts drug test on body fluids of
suspected drug pushers and users to determine the presence of dangerous drug
metabolites.
Paraphernalia like smoking pipes, tooters and aluminum foils should also be submitted
for examination to determine the presence of dangerous drugs.
Forms of Dangerous Drugs
Drug are in various forms. This includes tablets, capsules, liquid, powder, brick or decks
of marijuana, crushed leaves and uprooted plants.
Examination of the sample taken from the alleged confiscated Dangerous Drugs
Methods of Examination
1. Qualitative examination
2. Quantitative examination
Steps Common to qualitative and quantitative methods:
1. Selection of method to be used
2. Physical test
3. Sampling
4. Sample preparation
5. Chemical test
6. Confirmatory examination
7. Calculation and interpretation of dates
8. Drawing of conclusion and writing report

Two phases in the examination of the alleged confiscated Dangerous Drugs

1. Screening test/Preliminary test (also known as the color test)
This test is nonspecific and preliminary in nature. It is employed to reduce the family or
group of drug to a small and manageable number.
Screening test includes a series of color tests producing characteristic colors for each
family or group of drugs. This is done by adding specific reagent to unknown sample in
a spot plate.
Screening test is quite simple to perform even by investigators in the field. As a matter
of fact, field tests using these techniques are being taught in Narcotics Investigation
Courses. Test reagents and basic apparatus are commercially available.
Color Reactions:
Upon addition of specific reagents to a sample of dangerous drugs, a specific color
reaction id produced such as:
Cannabis: Duquenois-Levin =violet
Fast Blue B salt = purple red

Cocaine: Cobalt Thiocyanate test

or CT test = blue
Scott test or Modified
CT test: Reagent 1 = blue
Reagent 2 = pink
Reagent 3 = blue

Wagner test brown (specific test for cocaine)

Diazepam: Zimmerman test =reddish purple or pink (some benzodiazepine derivative
do not give color with this test)
Hydrochloric acid = yellow
Vitali-Morin test =yellow orange
Opium: Marquis = Violet
Ferric Sulfate = Brownish purple
Mecke = Blue to green
Nitric acid = Orange to red to yellow

Morphine: Marquis = Violet to reddish purple

Codeine: Mecke = Blue to green
Nitric acid = Orange to yellow
Heroin: Mecke = Blue to green
Nitric acid = Yellow to green
Dille-Kopppanyi test = reddish purple (for barbiturates)
Methamphetamine Hydrochloride:
Simon test =Blue
Marquis test = Orange to brown
Ecstasy: Simon test = Blue

Methaqualone and Phencyclidine:

CT test = blue
Lysergide or LSD: Ehrlich = violet
Mescaline: Marquis test = Orange
Liebermann = black

2. Confirmatory Test
Confirmatory test is the method employed to confirm the results of the
screening/preliminary test.
This test involves the application of an analytical procedure to identity the presence of a
specific drug or metabolites. This is independent of the screening test and which uses
techniques and chemical principles different from that of the initial test in order to ensure
reliability and accuracy.
There are several methods used in the confirmatory test.
Chromatography - is the process of separating mixture and comparing the migration of
each component with standard. Some chromatographic techniques include:
Gas chromatography
Thin Layer chromatography
High-Pressure Liquid chromatography

What is a GAS Chromatography?

-It is a separate technique
-The mobile phase is a gas
- Separation is based on the difference in migration rates among sample components.
Spectroscopy-a confirmatory method whereby light is used to identify the sample
specimen.
Fourier -Transform Infrared Spectroscopy(FTIR) - Used for the identification of pure
organic substances. ldentifies organic substances particularly, dangerous drugs and
explosive ingredients based on their characteristic functional groups. In layman's term,
the resulting spectrum could be referred to as the fingerprints of the substance.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy - Used for screening of dangerous drugs in urine
specimen.
Examination of the Urine Specimen
The rate of excretion from the body depends on the drug's solubility in fat. Water soluble
drugs (such as cocaine) are excreted quickly, while fat soluble drugs such as marijuana)
may take several weeks or months before excretion.
Drug test must be conducted to apprehended individual/s who is/are suspected to be a
user/ s; and to those who are charged with the offense of "Illegal Use or Dangerous
Drugs".
Validity Test for Urine Specimen
Validity test is conducted to determine the integrity of the samples.
Reasons for Conducting Validity Tests
-In cases of unobserved urine collection
-When there is suspicion that the urine specimen has been tampered
Instances when to allow Unobserved Urine Specimen Collection
 When donor is physically unable to go to the laboratory
 When donor is involved in a crime scene
 When donor is critically ill

Different Types of Tampered Urine Specimen

a. Adulterated-a specimen containing either a substance that is not a normal
constituent for that type of specimen or containing an endogenous substance at a
concentration that is not a normal physiological concentration
b. Diluted- refers to a specimen with less than normal physiological constituents
c. Substituted -a specimen which has been derived through switching or replacement
of the original sample

Ways to Adulterate Urine Samples

 Addition of salt
 Addition of juice
 Addition of detergent
 Addition of bleach and other oxidizing adulterants
 Addition of illicit drugs
Ways to Substitute a Urine Sample
 Urine from friends or other persons not using drugs may be used as substitute
specimen
 Replace sample with other substance similar to urine in appearance.
GUNSHOT RESIDUE
Basically, gunshot residue comes from the powder component of bullet, elements from
cartridge cases and gun barrel where the bullet passes. When these components are
burned, certain products of combustion are formed which includes partially burned and
unburned particles.
These particles are deposited on the target as definite pattern depending upon the
distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target at the time of discharge.
Upon discharge of firearm, gunpowder residues nitrates) may, be deposited on a person
at close proximity, so the interpretations as to who discharge the firearm should be
made with caution. (Thorton, 1986)
Hand or body part close to the fired weapon may have gunpowder residues consistent
with having discharged the weapon. However, absence of gunpowder residues on the
person's hands or body parts does not mean that he/she did not discharge a firearm.
Gunpowder residue - may be found on the skin or clothing of the person who
discharged the gun, on the entrance bullet hole of garment or wound of the victim, or on
other target materials at the scene.
Components of gunshot residue
1. Primer or lead residue
2. Gunpowder residue
3. Elemental component from cartridge cases residues
Composition of Primer
1. Major primer elemental composition: lead (Pb), barium (Ba), or Antimony (Sb).
2. Trace element: aluminum (Al), sulfur (S), tin (Sn), calcium (Ca), potassium (K),
chlorine (C), or Silicon S1)
3. Inorganic compound: mercury fulminates (present in most ammunition manufactured
in Eastern Europe and used in Middle East).

Composition of gunpowder
1. Contains up to 23 organic compounds (FBI study)
2. Nitrocellulose is virtually always present along with nitrate and nitrogen containing
compound such as Diphenylamine or DPA (stabilizer in the powder).
Types of gunpowder
1. Single based - when the basic ingredient is nitrocellulose
2. Double based - nitrocellulose +1 to 40% nitroglycerine
3. Triple based -nitrocellulose + nitroglycerine + nitroguanidine.
These can be differentiated using a mass spectrophotometer.
Types of Powder used in the ammunition of small firearms
There are two types of powder used in the ammunition of small firearms. These are:
1. Black Powder - this consists of a mixture of carbon (Charcoal), sulfur and potassium
nitrate. This mixture is used as an igniter in smokeless gun propellant. It consists of a
mixture of 15% Charcoal, 10% Sulfur and 75% Potassium nitrates. Aluminum is added
to enhance the burning property. When this powder is burned, Combustion reaction
takes place:
2KN03+ 202 + S+C Co2 + Sso2 + k202 + 2NO2
2. Smokeless Powder -This mixture consists of Cellulose or glycerol nitrate combined
with some stabilizers (nitrobenzene or graphite nitrates, dichromate and oxalates).
When this powder explodes, the chemical reaction takes place
Cellulose nitrate : C12H1404(NO3)6+6H2O+3N2+4CO2+8CO+H2
Glycerol nitrate: C3H5(NO3)3+CO2+H20+N20+N2+02
DETECTION OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE
The following are common methods used by most crime laboratories to detect gunshot
residue:
1. Paraffin test
2. Lead residue (detection limit: up to 30 feet and always present on the opposite sides
of the penetrated target). Reported from intermediate glass target present (Messler and
Armstrong, 1978).
3. Gunpowder residue examination (detection limit: highly variable up to 20 cm, and up
to 21 inches is common)
4. Other examinations
History of Paraffin test/dermal nitrate or Diphenylamine test
Paraffin test was originated from Cuba when Dr. Gonzalo lturrios first used
paraffin for collecting gunpowder residues from discharged firearm.
In 1933,Teodoro Gonzales of Criminal Identification Laboratory, Mexico City introduced
the test in the United States.
In this test, the hands were coated with a layer of melted paraffin. After cooling, the
casts were removed and treated with Diphenylamine (5% DPA in 60% sulfuric).
Paraffin Test
To determine whether a person has discharged a firearm, the Paraffin-Diphenylamine
test is used. The basis of this test is the presence of nitrates in the gunpowder residue.
Paraffin Wax
Paraffin wax is a white, translucent, tasteless, odorless solid consisting of a mixture of
solid hydrocarbons of high molecular weight.
Different names of this test:
Lunge's test
Diphenylamine test
Dermal nitrate test
Gonzales test – named after the one who improved the test.
Question: Is there any means of removing these nitrates from the hands? How
long will they stay in the pores?
Answer:
None. Ordinary washing Will not remove the nitrates from the pores of the skin. Usually,
gunpowder nitrates that are embedded on the skin stay for 72 hours. That is why
paraffin casting should be conducted within the specified period.
Substances giving false positive result:
1. fertilizers
2. explosives
3. tobacco
4. urine
5. certain cosmetics
6. food samples
7. cigarette
Question: Will these substances not positive result for paraffin test?
Answer
If the hands of the subject person are contaminated with nitrates other than from
gunpowder, one will expect to find smudges or just a smear. But nitrates from
gunpowder appear as blue speck with tailings, because these particles were embedded
into the hands with force.

Question: Is paraffin test result a conclusive evidence? Why?

Answer:
No. It is just a corroborative evidence which intends to support the testimony of
eyewitness/es, There are instances wherein a person who actually discharged a firearm
would still give a negative result to the paraffin test because of several factors.

Question: What are these factors?

Answer
1. Types of caliber of ammunition
2. Use of gloves
3. Length of the barrel
4. Age of the gun/efficiency of mechanism
5. Direction of firing
6. Wind direction and velocity
7. Humidity/percentage moisture in air
8. When 72 hours had already lapsed (3 days)
Types of caliber of ammunition.
A hand discharging a revolver is more likely to give a positive result for gunpowder
nitrates compared to that of a hand discharging pistol. ln an automatic pistol, the
chamber is an integral part of the barrel, whereas in the revolver, the chamber is located
in the cylinder and separated from the barrel with airspace. Thus, leakage of powder in
a revolver is more likely to occur.
False Positive result
1. Contamination or transfer of gunshot residue GSR) to the body by mishandling, or
when the body is heavily contaminated by GSR from previous shooting.
2. Washing of hands where samples are collected
3. Type of ammunition such as rifle and shot gun.
Length of the barrel. A weapon of 2-inch barrel will deposit residue over a larger area
than a weapon of 5-inch barrel (even if they are discharged from the same distance with
the same type of ammunition). In a longer barrel, the hand is farther away from the
muzzle end of the gun.
Age of the gun/efficiency of mechanism. Complete combustion or the conversion of
all nitrates into its end product (CO,CO,N,O,-OH) is more likely to occur in a new
weapon compared to an old one. Besides, Ieakage of gunpowder is more likely to
happen in the old weapon where the breech mechanism is no longer tightly fitted.
Direction of firing. More powder residues will be obtained when the gun is discharged
pointing, upward than downward. Gunpowder residues have weight and will naturally
fall down because of gravity.
Wind direction and velocity. In high velocity (strong wind), the powder residues will be
blown in the direction of the wind. One is more likely to be positive for gunpowder
nitrates if there is no wind, or the wind direction is towards the shooter.
Humidity/percentage moisture in air.
Humidity lessens the extent of combustion yielding more gunpowder nitrates.
False Positive reaction - smear of blue color or a conglomeration of blue specks on
both dorsal and palm aspects of the hand.
Entrance and Exit holes:
Entrance hole contains gunpowder residue (bullet wipe residue) and it is slightly burned.
The diameter of entrance hole is smaller than the exit hole.
The exit hole is frayed outward while entrance hole is inward.
Other Entrance hole characteristics:
a. Angled bullet entrance hole has elongated hole.
b. Contact fires have uneven margins but all entrance holes typically have even
margins.
C. Grazing bullet hole (several small holes created from a folded garment)
Classification of gunshot distance
Burning (direct)
Singeing (1 to 2 inches)
Smudging (2 to 8 inches)
Tattooing (8 to 18 inches)
The distance of the muzzle of the gun to the target is classified into three (3)
1. Direct contact
2. 2 inches to 36 inches away
3. 36 inches away or more

Tests for Gunshot Residue (GSR)

Nitrite and
Lead residue chemical examination

Characteristics of Gunshot wounds

a. Direct/Contact wounds
The principal damage is more visible due to the flame and the muzzle blast than to the
penetration of bullet. The following observations may be noted:
1. Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn
2. Blackened area surrounding the bullet hole
3. The presence of partially burned powder residues around the entrance hole
b. Wounds inflicted at a Distance from 2-36 inches:
If the gun is discharged closely to the body of the victim, two (2) types of discoloration
will be observed around the hole of the entrance namely: (1) smudging and (2) powder
tattooing (black coarsely peppered pattern).
Smudging is produced when the gun is held from about 2 inches to the maximum of 8
inches. The smoke and soot from the burned pores are deposited around the hole of the
entrance producing a dirty appearance
C. Wounds inflicted at a Distance of more than 36 inches:
 Powder tattooing is seldom present
 Nitrates found will not be sufficient for GSR
Bullet Comparison - a type of examination using a microscope which is commonly
used in comparison of an empty shell containing characteristic marks from groves of the
gun barrel and firing pin of specific firearm used.
FIREARM EXAMINATION
Methods used to determine the probable time the firearm has been discharged:
a. Lucas test
A characteristic smell that decreases in intensity with lapse of time is present
immediately after firing but even after several weeks some slight smell remains.
b. Odor (Hydrogen Sulfide)
This is another product resulting from combustion of gunpowder which is present in the
gaseous state. This compound can be detected by means of lead acetate paper test.
If the breech of the gun is kept closed, this persists between 2-3 hours.
Sulfide -the greater part disappears in about 4-5 hours but frequently a trace remains
for a longer time, the longest period being 10 hours.
c. Odor of the Barrel (rusting)
As a rule, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of a firearm if such firearm has not
been discharged.
But if the firearm has been discharged, iron salts are formed and can be detected inside
the barrel. These iron salts are soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust. The
formation of rust is affected by the humidity of the air so that in the interpretation of the
result, this factor must always be considered.
d. Presence of Nitrates (by cotton swabbing method)
Nitrates diminish after a lapse of time. Nitrates can be detected by swabbing, a portion
of residue in a barrel and mixing the residue with Diphenylamine solution (DPA).
e. Dermal Nitrate test
The test is designed to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates on the hands of
the alleged shooter.
Scorching or Singeing
If a firearm was discharged very close to the target as in a case of alleged suicide and
sometimes in murder, burns or scorches' may result. This resulting reaction is caused
by flame that emerges from the muzzle and travels only a short distance from it. This
distance will vary with the length of the barrel, the size of the powder charge and the
degree to which the bullet fill the barrel. The presence of scorch is a proof that the
firearm was discharged a few inches away from the target. Scorching is very rare if the
victim was shot 3 inches or more away from the muzzle.
Other Methods of Examination
The following are the sophisticated instruments used to determine the gunshot range
residue (GSR);
AAS - Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
NAA - Neutron Activation Analysis
SEM-EDX -Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis
ICP-MS- Inductively couled plasma with Mass Spectrophotometry

EXPLOSIVE AND EXPLOSION

Explosive, defined.

Explosive is any, substance that may caus eexplosion by its sudden decomposition or
combusto
It is any chemical compound or mixture that under the influence of heat, pressure,
friction or shock undergoes a sudden chemical change or decomposition

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES

I. According to the Velocity of Reaction involved

The speed of chemical reaction or detonation of the explosive determines the
classification of explosive as a) low; b) primary and initiating; and c) high explosives.

A. Low explosives
These are low burning, and used mainly as propellants like black and smokeless
powder. The rate of decomposition is a relatively slow process and the wave produced
is less than the speed of sound. These are used for launching rockets, projectiles from
guns and missile systems.
Classes of Low explosives
a. Primer
b. Igniter
C. Propellant
Primer
At the other end of the delay is the primer, an explosive (generally lead azide, mercury
fulminate,
Igniter (Black / Gun Powder)
Igniter in gun propellants and safety blasting fuses, delay fuses, signal and distress
rockets and in firecrackers are used in mining and low power explosives.
Composition:
a. Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) +charcoal +sulfur
b. Sodium nitrate (NaNo3) + charcoal + sulfur
c. Sulfurless black powder = KNO3 + charcoal
d. Pyrodex = KNO3 + potassium perchlorate
e. (KclO4)+ charcoal + sulfur + cyanoguanidine
Propellants
Propellants are used in launching projectiles from guns, rockets and missile system. It is
a mixture of one or more energetic materials (main charge), plasticizers to improve
processing characteristics, stabilizers to increase storage life and inorganic additives to
facilitate handling, ignitability and decrease muzzle mesh.
Kinds of Propellants
1. Smokeless Powder
The most widely used propellant is based on Nitrocellulose (NC). Single based contains
sole NC, while double based contains Nitroglycerine (NG) in addition to NC and triple
based contains NG + NCt Nitroguanidine.
Single-based:
a). Nitrocellulose (NC)+ Diphenylamine (DPA) + Dinitrotoluenee[DNT) + dibutyl phtalate
b). NC+DPA+Potassium Sulfate (K2S04)
c). NC + DPA + K2S04 + DNT
Double-based:
a). NO Nitroguanidine (NG) + Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) + Rthyl centralite + graphitothul
phtalate
b.NC+ NG + KNO3 + Et centralite + diethyl phtalate
C). NC+ NG + Et centralite + triacetin + Pb Saulicylate+ Pb stearate
d). NC + NG + diethyl phtalate + 2-nitroDPA + lead Salts + wax
Triple-based:
a). NC + NG + nitroguanidine + NaAlF + Et centralite
b). NC + NG + nitroguanidine + NaAlF +dibutyl phtalate + 2- nitroDPA

2. Nitrates / Nitrites (Found in black powder)

Salts of nitrates, such as KNO3, is used as ingredient in fireworks, gunpowder, blasting
powders, matches (improve burning prop). These are also used to impregnate
candlewicks. It is also used in picking meat and tobacco treatment for evenly burning.
B. Primary and initiating explosive
This kind of explosive is extremely sensitive to detonation by heat, shock, friction and
impact. It detonates without burning, like lead azide and mercury fulminate. This is used
primarily to start an explosion.
Example: Initiators, blasting caps, shock primer and stab
Characteristics of Primary Explosives
1. Can be initiated by a mechanical shock
2. Primary explosives are friction and heat sensitive materials
3. Readily ignited when comes in contact within flame or sparks.
C. High explosives
These explosives have very fast or high detonating rate like dynamite, TNT, and
Cyclonite (RDX).
The speed of its detonation wave equals to 1000m/s and pressure equals to
thousands of atmospheres. Such intensity can break a material into fragments
long before its opportunity to move away.
II. According to their Chemical structure
a. Organic explosives
b. Inorganic explosives
A. Organic explosives
- Nitro-containing organic compound
Carbon-nitro (C-N02) group
Nitrate ester (C-O-NO2) group
Nitramines (C-N-NO2) group
UpB. Inorganic explosives
These are salt-containing explosives
III. According to their application or design
a. Military explosives
b. Industrial explosives
A. Military explosives
The following are some of the basic explosives:
Composition: 4 (C4)-mixtures of RDX =polyisobutylene+di-(2 ethylhexyl)secabate+fuel
oil
Amatol2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) + Ammonium
Nitrate (AN) mixture
Cyclotol = TNT + ammonium picratee
Tritonal= TNT + Aluminum
B. Industrial explosives
a. Dynamites - first explosive invented by Alfred Nobel. It contains up to 75%
Nitroglycerin absorbed and desensitized by 25% diatomaceous earth
(Kieselguhr)/Oxidizer can be relapsed to increase the energy yield.
earth (Kieselguhr)/Oxidizer can be relapsed to increase the energy yield.
b. Ammonium nitrate explosives - (AN-nitro mixture and AN-fuel oil or ANFO)
c. Water explosives-slurries and water gel, explosive emulsions.
d. Home-made or Improvised explosives these are improvised explosives usually
assembled at home. These are easy to assembly.
e. Explosives with limited use - include those which were used in the past and became
obsolete.
Some common commercial explosives
1. Blasting caps - one of the most commonly found explosives used to set off main
charge. These are small thin cylinders with silver and copper color with 0.25 to 0.5 inch
diameter and 2 to 6 inches in length.
2. Safety Fuse -A time-delay devise like and a firecracker fuse. It has a black powder
core and waterproof jacket of solid striped colors.
3. Detonating cord - usually, this has a white exterior containing PETN. This is used to
set off multiple charges simultaneously.
4. Blasting agents - a combination of fuel and oxidants such as fuel oil and ammonium
nitrate. The color ranges from brown to bright pink due to the fuel added. This requires
booster since the components are not confined and cannot be set off by blasting cap.
This kind of explosive was used in New York World Trade Center and Oklahoma City
bombings.
5. Boosters - cylinder shaped with holes in which blasting cap is inserted. This is used
to increase the power of the initiating charges.
6. Dynamites- cartridge or sticks typically to 3 inches in diameter and 8 to 24 inches in
length.
7. Slurries or gels- liquid and semi-liquid form or commercial explosive.
8. Black or smokeless powder -common over the counter explosive used in reloading
gun ammunitions.
Some common Military Explosives
1. Grenades
2. Fuses - used to initiate explosive in any warhead
Two (2) types of fuse:
a. Point detonated (PD) - by impact, proximity or delay
b. Variable Time (VT)- detonates when the warhead is at certain distance from the
target
3. Ammunitions
4. Rockets and Missiles
5. Mines
6. Submunitions
7. Air drop
8. Incendiaries explode
9. Chemical ordnance simple as riot grenade or smoke bomb or as lethal as sarin nerve
gas. US type, typically gray with colored bands.
Explosion, defined.
Explosion - is a violent bursting or expansion caused by the release of mechanical,
chemical or nuclear energy from a confined area. This is a phenomenon resulting from
a sudden release of energy and this happens so rapidly that a local accumulation of
energy occurs at the site of explosion moving outward in various ways.
Implosion - is a similar phenomenon except that the energy released is initially directed
inward.
Types of Explosion
a. Mechanical explosion- it is a sudden breaking apart, shattering or bursting, into
pieces by internal pressure, such as those caused by expansion of gas producing high
pressure beyond the capacity, of the container. Also known as pressure explosion.
b. Atomic explosion - resulting from atomic transformations.
C. Chemical explosion -a source of explosion wherein the source of energy comes
from an explosive substance such as gunpowder produced through the extremely rapid
transformation of the unstable substances accompanied by the formation of heat.
SCENE EXAMINATION
Laboratory Identification
1. Pre-blast explosive device
2. Post blast explosive fragments
3 Explosive ingredients
Selectivity and Sensitivity
Sensitivity - the smallest concentration where a method will have the same response
with the larger concentration
Selectivity - one method for one sample that can be discriminated from another
METHODS OF EXAMINATION/DETECTION
1. Vapor Density Method
a. Trained animal-Dogs have been successfully used to detect hidden illegal drugs and
explosives. They are trained to sniff explosive vapors.
Olfactory system - system used to detect the odors smelled through the nose and
interpreted in the brain as signals.
b. Absorption and pre-concentration of vapors
C. Gas Chromatography - Electron capture detector (GC-ECD)
2. Bulk Density Method
a. X-ray imaging: X-ray beam is used to attenuate (reduce size, strength and density)
the explosive vapors. Detection indicates the extent of darker areas of the image.
b. Energetic photon Detection
C. Thermal neutron activation
3. Laboratory Examination
a. Physical test
b. Chemical test
Physical Test - Ocular inspection, weighing the specimen, and sampling
Sample preparation - extraction, preconcentration, derivatization
Chemical Test:
a. Color test -by adding specific reagent to sample producing different colors. The color
formed is due to the energy produced from the reaction, which corresponds to the
wavelength in the visible region (400-800 nm). Example: blue color (480-510 nm).
b. Confirmatory test by:
Chromatography (TLC, HPLC, GC ECD, GC-MS),
Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy (Mass Spectroscopy, Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy,Fourier Transform
IR Spectroscopy, Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy)
FIRE AND ARSON INVESTIGATION
Fire, defined.
Fire is a chemical reaction (rapid oxidation) that produces physical effects with evolution
of heat light. This reaction is called combustion.
Fire Investigation is the comprehensive analytical approach by understanding the
fundamental property of fire by determining the chemistry of fires, fuels, and
combustion. It is advantageous for an investigator and lawyer on case if they have at
least basic knowledge about fire.
Objectives / Purpose of Fire Investigation
1. To save lives and to prevent injuries
2. To determine the origin and cause of fire
3. To provide proof of fact during trial
4. To prepare to defend those conclusions in rational and logical manner supported by
scientific valid data.
Classification of Fire Investigation
1. Natural
2. Accidental
3. Unknown origin
4. Suspicious
5. Incendiary (obvious arson)
Incendiary fire
This is, the largest and most obvious fire investigated. The primordial intent is to destroy
property/ies of another.
Issues in Fire Investigation
1. Lack of time
2. Misidentified as accidental fire due to lack of experience
3. Intentionally made to avoid complication of identifying a fire as a criminal act (long
investigative time, generates negative publicity on the community).
Arson Investigation
Under the law, arson is the malicious burning of dwelling, house, or building of another.
In all fires, there must be a cause before an effect is produced. This cause is known as
combustion. Combustion is the effect of certain causes and if these causes are not
present, there can be no combustion, Spontaneous or otherwise.
Causes of Fire
A fire may be produced intentionally or accidentally. One of the methods of proving
arson is to determine systematically the presence of malice and intent in burning the
property of another.
An accidental fire may arise from the working of certain forces of nature or from
negligence in the use of equipment and materials.
Natural causes of fire
Sunrays are focused by bubbles in windowpanes, shaving mirrors or by some other
peculiarly shaped glass article, which may serve as convex lens.
Lightning usually strikes a high point of the building and may be traced in its path to the
ground.
Traces of lightning are melting of metal parts of the building streaked paint with burned
ores, cracks in the walls, broken bricks and soot driven into rooms from the chimney.
Indications of Arson Fire
Arson fire is generally indicated by:
1. Burning faster and larger than normal
2. Often having multiple points of origin
3. Use of accelerants
4. A time delay device (a matchbox and cigarette is a 22 minute fuse)
5. Cans and containers are usually found at the crime scene

Heat can be estimated by the condition of window glass

Small shards of glass mean an explosion took place.

"Crazing" means a hot fire

Melted copper, aluminum and other metalsusually mean an accelerant was used,

Soot that wipes off easily from glass or slightly charred studs behind the walls means a
quick fire.
COMBUSTION, NATURE AND BEHAVIOR OF FIRE
Combustion, defined.
Combustion is a burning, reaction in which a substance combines with a gas. Heat and
light usually accompanied by combustion reaction and most of this reaction involve
oxygen.
Example: Hydrogen combined with oxygen will undergo rapid oxidation and produces
water and heat.
Two types of Combustion
1. Flaming - destructive, gaseous combustion where both the fuel and oxidizer are
gases. Flaming fire is achieved when gas or vapor is continuously burning.
2. Glowing - absence of fire but presence of very hot materials on surface or which
combustion is proceeding
Two kinds of Combustion
a. Complete combustion -all of the reactants are consumed
b. Incomplete combustion - only some parts of the reactant are consumed
Basic Combustion Condition
1. Presence of Combustible fuel
2. Oxidizer
3. Energy of ignition (heat) applied
4. Interaction of fuel and oxidizer to sustain chain reaction
Matter - elements and compounds: composed of atoms combined forming molecules
Air - composed of 21% oxygen and 75% Nitrogen
Oxidation-is a combination of elements and compounds with oxygen producing stable
substances. Those compounds and elements that combine with oxygen and produces
fire are called flammable substance and the process is called combustion
Pyrolisis - comes from the Greek word pyro (fire) and lysis (decompose); process of
decomposition of material to simpler compounds brought about by heat from fire.
Flame- is a gaseous reaction where plume of hot convection when air and its oxygen is
maintained by solid (soot) or liquid (aerosol) in a closed room.
Color Temperature of Incandescent hot object (glowing fire)
1. Dark red - 500 to 600deg C
2. Dull red - 600- 800deg C
3. Bright cherry red - 800- 1000deg C
4. Orange-1000- 1200deg C
5. Bright yellow - 1200 1400deg C
6. white -1400-1600deg C
Fire Triangle
1. Fuel
2. Heat. Ignition
3. Oxidant
Explosive Triangle
1. Fuel
2. Ignition
3. Oxidant
Color of Smoke and Odor being evolved
1. White - humid materials
2. Light gray - hay and vegetable matter
3. Black - lack of air with huge flames usually petroleum based.
4. Reddish brown/thick yellow/brownish yellow- nitrocellulose fires, sulfur and sulfuric,
nitric or other chemicals.
5. Biting smoke - indicates the presence of sulfur
6. Rotten-Cabbage like odor-indicates the presence of carbon disulfide
7. Garlic odor - indicates the presence of phosphorous.
Transfer of Heat
1. Conduction- transfer by, contacting between moving molecules from hot to cold
areas.
2. Convection - distribution of heat by circulating medium
3. Radiation - critical where it aids fire to spread and promotes ignition of other fuels.
Two types of Heat Reaction
1. exothermic heat is released from the system
2. endothermic - heat is absorbed to the system.
SOURCES OF IGNITION
Ignition involves burning the fuel to characteristic temperature by convection,
conduction or radiation of heat until it can sustain combustion. The following are the
sources of ignition:
Sparks/ Arks
Primary Igniters
Lighters
Hot object/ surface
Friction
Primary Igniters
Matches - is the most common device for kindling flame. It is composed of combustible
material combined with head containing both fuel and oxidizer that can be ignited by
friction.
Two types of primary igniters:
1. Strike anywhere/ kitchen match - the tip contains a high percentage of Phosphorous
sesquisulfide(P4S3) and ground glass.
2. Safety match -will ignite only using abrasives (rough) materials
Lighters
Lighters can explode when exposed to a high temperature and form a leakage when
exposed to a reduced atmospheric pressure such as airplane.
Two types of lighter:
a. Electrical/element type - electrically connected to a battery of vehicles, Current, etc.
b. Liquid fuel lighters -contain liquid butane or light petroleum as fuel in a compartment
under pressure.
Sparks/ Arks
Sparks/Arks can be produced using electrical current discharging through the air or
insulator, or tiny fragment of burning or glowing solid.
Hot object/ surface
Hot object may convert the fuel to vapor which eventually starts a fire.
Friction
Friction between two moving objects/surfaces generates heat.
Laboratory Examination
Color test using "Sudan Black".
In this method of examination, the accelerants are allowed to evaporate a vapors are
reacted with this chemical until pink color of solution will appear which indicates the
presence of any accelerant.
2. Confirmatory examination: Gas chromatography with Headspace
This analytical method is used to detect the specific volatile accelerants by comparing it
with known standard such as kerosene, gasoline, etc.
How to minimize the fire
Fire incidents can be prevented by
1. Better building designs
2. Fire safety practices

TOOL MARK
A tool is an instrument or object capable of making a mark on another object.
A tool mark - is defined as any impression, cut, scratch, gouge, or abrasion, or any
other marking left on an object by another harder object or instrument. A tool mark may
be classified as a negative impression, as an abrasion or friction-type mark or as a
combination of the two.
Negative impression- is made when a tool is pressed against or into a receiving
surface. This type of mark is usually made when a crowbar is used to pry open a door
or window.
Abrasion or friction mark - is made when a tool cuts into or slides across a surface.
This type of mark may be made by a pair of pliers, a bolt cutter, knife, ax, saw, drill,
plane, or a die used in the manufacture of wire.
Combination mark - is made, for example, when a crowbar is forcefully inserted into
the space between a door and the door facing and pressure is applies to the handle of
the tool to force the door open. The forceful insertion of the crowbar produces an
abrasion or friction mark and the levering action produces a negative impression.

GLASS AND FRACTURE

Glass, defined.
Glass is an inorganic substance in a condition which is continuous with, and analogous
to, the liquid state of that substance, but which, as the result of reversible change in
viscosity as to be, for all practical purposes, rigid.
Glass is normally a fused mixture of silica usually in the form of natural sand and two or
more alkaline bases such as soda, lime, or potash. It also contains quantities of various
other elements and metals present either as incidental impurities in the basic
constituents or added to them for color, degrees of hardness, heat resistance, and other
specific purposes.
Properties of Glass
1. Glass is somewhat flexible; it tends to bend upon application of force.
2. Glass bends on the direction where force is applied causing the opposite side to
stretch.
3. Glass can withstand more bending rather than stretching causing the opposite side to
start breaking.
Glass fractures
Glass fractures may be caused by excessive exposure to heat or caused by impact of a
blunt instrument or object, or caused by projectiles.
Types of Glass fracture:
1. Radial Fractures - primary fracture resembles the spokes of a wheel where the
radiating rod originates at a common point. When glass breaks, the lines that radiate
from the hole are caused by the glass bending away from the point of impact.
The radial fractures originate on the opposite side of the glass, because this is the
surface which is the first to feel the tension. As the front of the glass is pushed in, the
opposite side is bent backwards. When the limit of glad elasticity is reached, it breaks,
with cracking resulting along the radial lines.
2. Concentric Fractures - secondary fracture having the appearance of circles around
the point of impact connecting one radiating crack to the other, thus forming triangular
pieces of glass.
While the radial fractures are forming, triangles are created between the fractures. The
newly formed triangle glass between the radial fractures also bends away from the
direction of force. When the limit of elasticity for this triangles is reached, the glass
breaks in concentric lines. Concentric fractures originate on the front of the glass.
3. Conchoidal Fractures - A characteristic of glad is that when it breaks, the fracture
edges appear shell-like in form - that is, having elevations or depressions in the shape
of a shell. The technical name for this condition is "conchoidal fracture.
Fractures Caused by Heat
Fractures caused by excessive exposure to heat can be distinguished from those
caused by impact since those due to heat do not show a regular pattern of radial and
concentric lines. Heat fractures are characteristically wave-shaped.
Heat fractures also show curve patterns (stress lines) along the edges. Expansion of the
glass (stretching action) occurs first on the side exposed, to the heat and glass splinters
are usually towards that side
Reconstruction of a glass object fractured by heat will disclose the wave-shaped
fracture pattern.
Fractures Caused by a Blunt Instrument/object
Thorough examination of glass fractures caused by the impact of a blunt
instrument/object will reveal a pattern of radial and concentric fractures.
When glass fractures are caused by the impact of a blunt instrument/object, stress lines
on the edges of both the radial and concentric fractures can be seen.
Fractures Caused by Projectiles
A Small dense object such as bullet, pebble, or steel ball may impact upon a pane of
glass with such a little force, or at such a high speed, that there is no bulging of the
glass, and therefore, no radial cracks Penetration of high velocity projectiles will
produce a coning or catering effect, where opening is larger on exit side.
Significance of determining the types of glass fractures
From the study of the types of glass fractures one may arrive at the following
conclusions:
1. Point of Impact
Glass is at its maximum strength under compression, but weak in tension. An impact on
a pane of glass causes it to bulge. Since the side opposite the impact is stretched more,
it ruptures first. Radial cracks are rapidly propagated away from the point of impact in
short segments. Ridges will be seen as irregularities, on the broken edge of a radial
crack. These ridges tend to be perpendicular to the side opposite the impact and
parallel to the side of impact. If there is high stress, minute stress Cracks called hackles
or hackle marks may also be observed under the microscope at right angles to the
ridges.
2. Direction of Impact
Generally, the hole produced in the glass by a bullet is small and has sharp edges.
However, if a bullet has been fired from a very long distance and hits a window at low
speed, it will break the pane in much same manner as a stone. A shot few inches from a
glass will produce a similar result, because pressure of the powder gas itself will smash
the glass.
A bullet will make a clear-cut hole in the side of entrance rather than on the exit side. lf a
shot is fired perpendicularly, it will give a crater of uniform flaking. If the shot is fired at
an angle from the right, the left exit side of the glass will give more flaking and vice
versa. Depression will be produced on the exit side of the glass due to the rebound of
the glass. Radial fracture can be seen on the exit side and the concentric fracture on the
entrance side.
3. Entrance and Exit Hole
Point of entry is where the force is being applied and it may produce a smaller hole than
the exit. The exit is bigger than the entry for the reason that the force applied at the
glass exceeded its desired force. Point of entry has a smooth hole while the exit hole
has the characteristic of roughness.
Causes of Glass Fracture
Glass fracture may be due to the following:
1. Due to Natural Means - exhibits plain wavy lines
2. Due to Mechanical Means exhibits a regular pattern of radial/concentric fracture
Factors to be determined in glass fracture
A. Point of Impact:
Entrance Side
1. Concentric fracture
2. Clear cut edges
3. Absence of depression
4. Absence of flaking
Exit Side
1. Radial fracture
2. Rugged edges
3. With depression
4. With flakings
B. Position of the Shooter
1. Perpendicular Shot-exhibits an even distribution of chippings on the exit side of the
glass
2. Angle from the Right heavy flakings or chippings on the left side of the glass
3. Angle from the Left - heavy flakings on the right side of the glass
C. Age of Fracture
1. Fresh Fracture - exhibits a regular pattern of radial/concentric fracture
2. Old Fracture - presence of a short extension lines at the end of the radial fracture
HAIR
Hair - is the outermost covering of the different parts of the body with the exception of
the palm of the hand and the sole of the foot.
Through microscopic examination, the forensic examiner will first determine if the hair
samples are of animal or human origin. If the hair is of animal origin, a general
determination as to species may be made, i.e., cat, dog, horse, cow, carabao, etc.
In the case of human hair, the following can be determined:
1. The race of the person the hair originated from- Negroid, Mongolian, and Caucasian
2. The area of the body surface that the hair originated from -- head, face, chest, axilla,
and pubic region
3. How hair was removed - naturally or forcibly
4. Whether the hair was cut with dull or sharp instrument or was crushed or burned
5. Usually examination will not permit conclusive determination of age and sex.
Structural Parts of the Hair
A. Inner Aspect:
1. Cuticle - outermost part which is scale-like in appearance
2. Cortex- the innermost portion that contains the pigment
3. Medulla - the central canal of the hair
B. Outer Aspect:
1. Tip -the distal end portion of the hair
2. Shaft -portion of the hair above the surface of the skull
3. Root - portion that is embedded in the skin

ULTRAVIOLET, FIBER, TAPE AND PAINT

ULTRAVIOLET EXAMINATION
ls a method of scientific examination of evidence using ultraviolet light. Documents,
weapons, chemicals, minerals, petroleum products and other items or evidence should
be observed routinely under the ultraviolet lamp.
FIBER
Fabric, composed of knotted or woven yarns shall be examined in terms of color,
composition and construction. Questioned fabric may be determined if similar to known
fabrics. Positive identification may be made where a questioned piece of fabric may
fitted back into the known fabrics. This type of fabric examination is based on matching
broken ends of yarn together.
TAPE
The examination is similar to fabrics examination which generally involves the matching
of the ends of pieces of tapes used at the scene of a crime with the end of tape on a roll
found in the possession of a suspect.
Cordage in the form of rope and string is examined in terms of composition, color,
diameter and construction. The known sample is compared with the unknown and
occasionally, ends may be matched or the manufacturer may be determined.
PAINT
Paint specimen is examined and compared by using a microscope to determine the
color, texture, layer, structure and any unique characteristics which may serve as points
of similarity or dissimilarity.
Paint specimen or scraping is further analyzed using Quarts Spectrograph in
determining and comparing the elemental composition of the questioned and standard.
A very small amount of specimen is sufficient and even trace elements can be detected.
MACRO-ETCHING EXAMINATION
Macro-etching (also known as Acid-etching method) is a technique employed in
number restoration which involves the application of chemical solution on the metal
surface where the serial number is normally located.

Chemicals/Reagents Used in Macro etching examination

1. For Iron and Steel: Cupric Chloride + Hydrochloric Acid + water
2. For Aluminum: Nitric Acid + water
3. For Lead: Glacial acetic acid+ Hydrogen peroxide
Number Restoration
When a letter or number is stamped into a metal surface, a molecular disturbance
occurs beneath the visible portion of the letter or number erased
Serial Number
A series of number that is punched or pressed into a particular object/ material to
distinguish that object from one another. A serial number is sometimes preceded with or
followed by letters and symbols.
Types of Number
1. Stamped member: number that is pressed or punched into a metal surface.
2. Engraved number: number that is pressed intendedly using electrical or mechanical
gadget.
3. Embossed number: number that is raised from the surface.
LIQOUR TEST (ALCOHOL DETERMINATION TEST)
What is the purpose of this test?
Basically, the purpose of this test is to determine whether or not a person is intoxicated
with liquor. This test is being conducted to determine the amount of ethyl alcohol
present in the bl0od sample taken from the person suspected to have been intoxicated
with alcohol.
Laboratory Examination
Quantitative examination is conducted to determine the amount of ethyl alcohol present
in the blood.
Significance of determining whether a person is intoxicated with alcohol
Intoxication as an alternative circumstance must be taken into consideration as
aggravating or mitigating according to the nature and effects of the crime and the other
conditions attending its commission.
The intoxication of the offender shall be taken into consideration as a mitigating
circumstance when the offender has committed a felony in a state of intoxication, if the
same is not habitual or subsequent to the plan to commit said felony; but when the
intoxication is habitual or intentional, it shall be considered as an aggravating
circumstances.
TOXICOLOGY
Toxicology is a scientific study of poisons their nature, properties, effects and detection
and the treatment in case of poisoning.
Toxicology deals with poisons - their origin, physical and chemical properties, effects
and treatment; and methods of detection. Frequently, toxicological examinations are
requested in cases of sudden and unexplained deaths. The internal organs and
contents obtained during the medico-legal autopsy are the usual specimen submitted,
as well as the suspected source of the poison such as food, drinks or medicine. If not
fatal, the vomits, blood and urine of the victims are examined. In cases of mass food
poisoning, identification of the poison by the laboratory is important not only in
investigation but more in the treatment of the victims. internal organs and other parts of
animals (chicken, dog, cat, etc.), too, are received frequently in connection with
complaints of malicious mischief.
Importance of Toxicology
a. To verify if it is a case of poisoning
b. To be able to treat as the occasion demands
C. To forward justice
The, reason for the application of Toxicology is to determine the, presence of volatile,
non-volatile and metallic poisons in cases of alleged poisoning.
Poison
Poison is a substance that when introduced into or absorbed by a living organism
causes death or injury.
Poison - is a substance capable of producing adverse effects on an individual. under
appropriate conditions. Adverse effects refer to the injury (structural damage of tissues)
and an appropriate condition means the dosage of the substance that is sufficient to
cause this adverse effect.
Types of Poisons
1. True poison- is one that still poisons no matter how diluted it is.
E.g. Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)
2. Corrosive poison - is one which by contact with it chemically produces local
destruction of tissues.
E.g. Nitric acid (HNO3), mercuric chloride acid poison used as herbicides.
3. Cumulative poison - is one that increases suddenly in its intensity of action after
gradual additions of it.
Ex. digitalis; arsenic
TYPES OF POISONING
A. Acute Poisoning - one in which there is prompt and marked disturbance of function or
death within a shorter period of time and is due to:
1. Taking a strong poison
2. Excessive single dose
3. Several doses, small but frequent
B. Chronic Poisoning - kind of poisoning in which there is gradual deterioration of
functions of tissues and may or may not result in death. It may be produced by:
1. Taking several small doses at long intervals
2. Taking only toxic doses of the drug
Three (3) Major Case Load Areas
1. Police Cases toxicological aspect of criminal investigations
2. Postmortem cases - analytical studies in support of the medical examiner to
determine the cause of death
3. Drug abuse cases resulting from the illegal use of drugs.
Evidence of Poisoning
1. Circumstantial or moral evidence Circumstantial or moral evidence is an evidence
deduced from occurrence of factor circumstances.
Ex. motives for poisoning, purchasing the poison; keeping the materials used. This is
not strong evidence.
2. Symptomatic evidence
This includes the symptoms observed during the poisoning. This is not conclusive
because some diseases may show similar symptoms as those or poisoning.
Ex. arsenic poisoning is like cholera; alcoholic coma may stimulate diabetic coma.
3. Chemical evidence
This is evidence obtained by chemical analysis of the suspected substance or the vomit
or secretion of the body. This alone is not reliable because the poison may be
decomposed or changed or it may have been replaced after death.
4. Postmortem evidence
This evidence is obtained from an examination of the tissues and organs after death.
There are many poisons, however, that do not produce characteristic findings. Also, the
findings may be like those produced by diseases.
5.Experimental evidence -Experimental evidence is obtained by administering the
suspected substance to some living animal and noting the effect or symptoms. This
alone is also not conclusive because the tolerance may not be the same as in man.
History of Modern Toxicology
Paracelsus -(16th Century)physician/alchemist; first German Swiss stressed the
chemical nature of poison and its action by experimentation. He introduced dose
concept.
Prof. Matthieu Orfila - (19th Century) attending physician to Louis XVIIl; correlated
chemistry of toxins with the biological effects it produces in a poisoned individual.
Four Elements of Poisoning:
1. Poison
2. The poisoned Organism
3. The injury to the cells
4. The symptoms and the signs of death
CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS
A. Classification based on Origin
1. Animal/Toxin - a poison produced by living organism stimulating antibodies. Usually
transferred through bites and stings of venomous terrestrial or marine animals.
2. Vegetable Poison Ivy and Jimsonweed plants
3. Mineral - Hydrochloric Acid, caustic alkali
4. Microbial - Produced by microscopic organisms
Ex. bacteria, fungi
5. Synthetic- Manufactured by Chemists such as drugs, pesticides as well as chemical
purified from natural sources such as metals from ores and solvents from gasoline.
B. According to chemical properties
1. Volatile Poisons- poisonous compounds that can be isolated using steam distillation
and analyzed using Gas Chromatography with thermal head attached on it.
Ex: (acidic medium) cyanide, ethanol, methanol, nitrobenzene
2. Non-volatile Poisons most drugs are non-volatile
3. Anions
4. Metallic
5. Miscellaneous (e.g. Pesticides)
Classification based on Physical Form or Property
1. Solid not well absorbed into the blood, they must be dissolved in aqueous liquid lining
the intestinal tract it ingested or respiratory tract if inhaled.
2. Liquid
3. Gas
4. Vapor
5. Aerosol
D. According to action (Physiological)
1. Irritants by direct contact, this poison inflames the mucous membrane or the parts it
comes in contact with resulting to nausea, vomiting, pain, and diarrhea.
Ex. Bromine
True Irritants - Bromine, Chloride, Cotton Oil
2. Corrosives by direct contact, chemically produces local destruction of tissues.
Ex: Phenol, HCl, HNO, Caustic Soda (NaOH)
3. Neurotics - those that affect the central nervous system
a. Cerebral Neurotics:Narcotics inducing drwsiness, sleep stupor, complete or
incomplete insensibility or loss of feeling.
Ex: alcohol, opium, tobacco
b. Spinal Neurotics: Tetanics a poison that act on the spinal cord producing spasmodic
or continuous contractions of muscles resulting in stiffness of the parts to which they are
attached.
Ex: Strychnine, Picrotoxin
C. Cerebrospinal Neurotics
*. Deliriants are poisons that act on the brain causing disorder of mental functions
resulting to confusion of free will.
Ex: cannabis indica, cocaine
*. Depressants a substance that depress or retard the physiological action of an organ.
Ex: Antipyrine, lobella
4. Aesthetics/Exhaustive - poisons that cause marked loss of vital or muscular power or
general weakness.
Ex: Aconite, KCN, Digitalis
According to their effects on the body/ target sites
1. Those which cause local destruction (skin)phenol, HC1
2. Blood Poisons-Carbon Monoxide (CO), Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)
3. Nervous Poisons (nervous system
4.Cardiac Poisons (Cardiovascular System)- Stop the heart beat e.g Digitalis, antipyrine
Entrance and Elimination of Poisons
Poison may enter the body They may be eliminated by through:
Mouth
Skin
Nose and Eyes
Rectum and Vagina
Hypodermically
Intravenously

Emesis
Respiration
Feces
Urine
Milk
Sweat, Saliva and Tears
POSOLOGY
Posology is a science which deals with the study of the dosage of medicine to be
administered within a certain period.
Medicine
Medicine is any substance which can be administered to correct or alleviate the
disease or disordered state of the system.
Dose
Dose is the quantity of medicine to be administered at one time.
The dosage concept is important. Whether a drug acts as a therapy or poison, it will
depend on the dose. Even water is poisonous if too much is ingested.
Types of Dose
Safe Dose - is one that does not cause harmful effects. Sometimes, however, it may be
too small to produce the desired effects.
Minimum Dose - is the smallest amount of medicine a produce the desired therapeutic
effect without causing harm.
Maximum Dose - is the largest amount that will cause no injury but at the same time
produce the desired therapeutic effects.
Toxic or Poisonous - Dose is one that is harmful both to the healthy and the sick.
Lethal or Fatal Dose is the dose that kills.
Antidotes
Antidote is any agent that neutralizes a poison or otherwise counteracts or opposes its
effects.
Action -to act as an antidote, it may:
a. Remove the poison from the body: emetic
b. It may mechanically prevent its absorption (demulcent): cathartic
c.lt may change the physical state or chemical composition (e.g. Na2S04 for Barium
d. It may act upon the functions of the body so as to overcome the effects of its
absorption
Kinds of Antidotes
a. Chemical or true or specific
b. Mechanical antidote or antidotal measure
C. Physiological antidote or antagonist or Symptomatic antidote
Chemical, true or specific antidote is one that lakes the poison harmless by chemically
altering it.
Mechanical antidote or antidotal measure is an agent that removes the poison without
changing it; coats the surface of the organ so that absorption is prevented.
Stomach tube and pump
Precipitants
Ligatures, washes, injections, poultries
Causes of Death in Poisoning
1. Cardiac failure
2. Respiratory failure
3. General devitalizing
4. Shock to the nervous system

DNA ANALYSIS
DNA or Deoxyribonucleic acid - is a chemical substance found in all cells whose
composition has been passed on trom parent to their children. All cells in the body have
the same DNA composition except individual egg and sperm cells.
Biological evidence that can be submitted for DNA Analysis:
a) blood and bloodstains
b) semen and seminal stains
c) hairs with follicle or root
d) saliva or buccal swab
e) bones and organs
f) tissues and cells
Cases where DNA Analysis can be of help:
a) Sexual assault
b) Murder
c) Homicide
d) Robbery
e) Hit and run
f) Extortion
g) Paternity case
h) Identification of remains from mass disaster cases and missing persons
How DNA Analysis is used to identify with accuracy the perpetrators of crime
Human tissues such as hair strands, bloodstain, saliva, and other body tissues are often
left in the Crime Scene. By proper collection, preservation and examination through
DNA test of such pieces of tissues, their owner can be identified.
The Supreme Court, in a recent case has made a result. pronouncement on the
admissibility of the DNA test
Hair strands left by the kidnapper in cases of kidnapping, lairs, bloodstains in
clothing associated with murder, saliva stains in cigarette butts, stamps,
envelopes associated with extortion, may all be used to help identify the
perpetrators.
How DNA Typing is done
DNA typing is done by first carefully extracting the DNA from the evidentiary samples.
The DNA is then analyzed to give a particular pattern. The patterns are Compared with
that of a known individual to determine a match. In individual identification, the pattern
obtained from the evidentiary sample is compared with that of a suspect.
THE SCIENCE OF DNA TYPING
DNA, the genetic "blueprint" of life, is found in every cell of the human body which
contains a nucleus.
Short for "deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA is located in chromosomes found within the
nucleus of most cells.
DNA is composed of long, tightly coiled strands which contain, in humans,
approximately 3.3 billion base pairs in a single molecule.
These long strands of DNA are simply a combination of four different bases, named
adenine, Cytosine, guanine and thymine (abbreviated "A", "C, "G", and "T").
The DNA sequence, or order of the base pairs, is the same for every cell in a person's
body which has a nucleus, with the exception of reproductive cells (ova and sperm),
each of which contains only one-halt of that person's DNA.
Approximately 99.9% of the sequence of these 3.3 billion bases is identical for all
humans and performs the same function.
However, approximately 1/1,000 of the sequence of the DNA molecule is different
among individuals, with the exception of identical twins. Thus, about 3 million of these
A, C, G, and T's are combined in different sequences in different humans. The fact that
people vary to this extent allows forensic scientist to determine whether DNA from a
particular evidence sample could or could not have originated from a known person.
Cells that have nuclei, and therefore DNA, are found throughout the human body.
Blood, sperm, hair roots, bone, teeth, organs muscle, and other tissue all contain DNA
which can be tested by forensic scientists.
Body fluids in liquid or dried form, such as saliva and vagina secretions, can also be
tested, inasmuch as these fluids normally contain cells referred to as "epithelial cells",
such as those from the lining of the mouth and vagina.
The more widely used DNA test employed to analyze both known and unknown
samples in criminal cases and paternity establishment is referred to as "RFLP"
(Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) testing.
The procedure is routinely used in medical diagnostics, genetics, molecular biology and
other scientific fields, and is based on scientific principles which have been established
for decades.
The RFLP technique necessitates dividing DNA into fragments of various sizes.
Because some of these fragments are relatively large, the RFLP testing process
requires that the DNA extracted from evidentiary material be well-preserved, or in "high
molecular weight" form, for the procedure to be successfully employed.
A very small sample size such as minuscule bloodstains, low levels of sperm found on
vaginal swabs, or a small number of hair roots or a sample too degraded for RFLP
testing may require the use of a second form of DNA typing. Loosely referred to as the
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), this alternative form of testing is frequently useful in
instances in which RFLP typing may prove futile.
STANDARDS OF ADMISSIBILITY OF FORENSIC DNA TYPING
A. The general acceptance standard of Frye vs. United States (D.C. Cir 1923) 293 F.
1013, is utilized by the majority of appellate courts which have addressed the
admissibility of forensic DNA typing.
1. The test is applied to determine the admissibility of results derived from a new or
novel scientific technique.
2. The requirement of general acceptance exists due to judicial fear that "lay, jurors tend
to give considerable weight to 'scientific evidence when presented by experts with
impressive credentials." We have acknowledged the existence of a "misleading aura of
a certainty which often develops a new scientific process, obscuring its currently
experimental nature."
B. An increasing number of appellate courts utilize the "relevancy" or "reliability" or
"Federal Rules" standard in determining the admissibility of forensic
DNA typing results.
1. These standards require the examination of a number of factors in the determination
of admissibility, subject to a variation among individual states.
a. The reliability of the scientific test itself;
b. The novelty of the technique and its relationship to the methods of analysis outside
the forensic arena,
C. The existence of a community of scientists qualified to critically examine the testing
method,
d. The rate of error in the use of the testing technique; and
e. The existence and application of standards governing the use of the analysis method.
FORENSIC SEROLOGY AND BLOODSTAIN PATTERN ANALYSIS
Serology
This term is used to describe a broad scope of laboratory tests which used specific
antigen and serum antibody reactions.
History of Forensic Serology
Before the 20h century, physicians have tried to transfuse blood from one individual to
another. Their attempt often ended in failure because the transfused blood had a
tendency to coagulate in the body of the recipient causing an instantaneous death.
BLOOD
Blood refers to a highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic
substances.
Significance of Blood and Bloodstains
Blood and bloodstains are very vital as evidence in crimes of violence.
Two (2) Main Components of blood
1. Plasma (55% of blood content) - fluid portion of blood composed principally of water.
2. Suspended solid cells (45% of blood content)
a. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) - function to transport oxygen from the lungs to the
body tissues and in turn remove carbon dioxide from tissues/organ and transporting it
out to the body through lungs. On the surface of these cells, millions of characteristic
proteins were residing which gives blood type characteristic. These proteins were called
antigens.
Antigen system
More than 15 blood antigen systems have been identified. The two most common are
the A-B-O system and the Rh system.
b. White blood cells (leucocytes)
C. Platelets
BLOOD CHARACTERIZATION
Spot Test tests for the presence of blood:
a. Benzidine test-presumptive test for the presence of blood.
b. Kastle-Meyer test- using phenolphthalein and hydrogen peroxide forming pink
coloration due to the presence of peroxidase (enzyme) activity of the blood hemoglobin.
C. Luminol test - a spray reagent used to test for the presence of blood even if the
blood is not visible under ordinary light. This is viewed under ultraviolet lamp.
d. Takayama test
e. Teichmann test
Tests to determine whether the blood is from Man or Animal
a. Precipitin test antigen and antibody reaction forming precipitate. This serum will form
a no precipitin band on the junction between the serum and human blood being tested.
b. Gel diffusion - using agar to test for human blood.
C. Electrophoresis
Blood Clotting
When a protein in blood called fibrin is trapped and enmeshes red blood cells, blood
clothing occurs.
Removing clotted blood yields a yellowish liquid called serum. This yellow liquid
contains certain proteins know as antibodies. The serum that contains antibodies is
called antiserum.
Antibody
Antibody is a protein that destroys or inactivates specific antigen. Usually denotes a
prefix anti". By principle, for every antigen, there exists a specific antibody. The reaction
of the two is specific. When the two reacts, they immediately combine causing the
antibody to attach itself to the cell.
Two (2) antigen-antibody reactions
a. Two different antigen and antibody will not combine. Example: Anti B and A antigen.
b. Link together or agglutinate.
BLOODSTAIN PATTERN
Bloodstain and patterns are useful for interpreting and reconstruction of events that
occurred during bleeding.
GATHERING AND SAFEKEEPING OF EVIDENCE
BODY FLUIDS
Body fluid and seminal stains are important evidence. Whether they are bloodstains or
seminal stains, they can be employed to determine whether a person is involved in a
crime or not.
1. Blood
It is a must that before collecting bloodstains, precise description of the extent and
pattern of blood spatters should be made. This means that close-up scaled photographs
of bloodstains should be done.
lf materials with bloodstains are sent to the laboratory, the following procedures should
be compile.
a. Air-dry the material on a clean paper.
b. When dried, put the material inside a paper, Mark the bag with initials, the date and
an exhibit number before fastening it. Do not bag items if they are not thoroughly dried.
c. If the material has to be folded, cover the stained area with clean paper. Avoid folding
across the stained area.
d. Bloodstained materials should be packaged individually.
e. Collect a comparison standard. The comparison standard is 5cc of blood each taken
from the victim and the suspect which are placed in separate vials. A qualified physician
is tasked with extracting, the blood. The vials are marked with the donor's name,
doctor's name, the date, exhibit number and other pertinent information.
2. Saliva
a. Air-dry the material on a clean paper.
b. When dried, put the material inside a paper bag. Mark the bag With initials, the date
and an exhibit number before fastening. Do not bag items if they are not thoroughly
dried.
C. If the material has to be folded, cover the stained area with clean paper. Avoid
folding across the stained area.
d. Bloodstained individually.
e. Collect a comparison standard.
4. Sweat
Obtain sweat evidence following steps shown in 3.
5. Urine
Obtain urine evidence following steps shown in 3.
EXPLOSIVES AND INCENDIARIES
Extreme care is needed when searching for bomb or arson-related evidence. For
instance, the presence of large volume of debris, their small size and the possibility of
their being washed away when fire is extinguished make this type of evidence hard to
find.
1. Arson Debris
Glass
a. Collect glass splinters and dust them for fingerprints if the evidence indicates that a
Molotov Cocktail device was used.
b. Pack the glass splinters in a clean, fast enable metal can. Mark the metal cans with
initials the date, exhibit number and other pertinent information.
Wood and Fabrics
a. Collect materials which may appear to have traces of gasoline or any other
incendiary.
b. Obtain similar comparison standard. Materials similar to the collected evidence,
which appear to be free from gasoline or any other incendiary, should be collected as
standards. Though not always necessary, comparison standards are required specially
if the floor or ground work is chemically similar to the incendiary used.
Suspected Flammable Liquids
a. Put an ounce of the suspected fluid in a small sealed, clean can.
b. Fasten the can and mark it with your initials, the date, exhibit number and other
pertinent information.
2. Explosive Debris
a. Find the focus of the blast and then get lose debris from it. Then remove additional
material up to 3-5 inches deep.
b. Put the evidence in separate clean, unused metal cans. Fasten and mark the cans
with initials, the date, exhibit number, and other pertinent information.
C. Put objects presumed to be in close proximity with the blast in metal cans. Mark
them. Put metal objects from the explosive device in metal cans. Wrap items like Wires
and objects with tools marks with tissue paper secured with a tape. Mark the metal cans
with your initials, the date, exhibit number and other pertinent information.
d. Evidence collected from the scene should not be placed in the same package
together with the evidence obtained from the suspect.
e. Comparison standards should be packaged separately.
Explosive Substances and Devices
a. Find evidence from deactivated substances.
Do not attempt to deactivate any explosive device unless you have been trained to do
so.
b. Dust the smooth surface of the device for fingerprints.
C. If a tape or paper wrapping is found put these in a clean unused metal can
FABRICS
Fabrics discovered at the crime scene or missing from the crime scene should be
collected since these may be supportive or necessary evidence which can connect a
suspect with the crime or eliminate him from consideration. Never disregard any item
simply because you think it has no connection with the crime. The succeeding
paragraphs provide for the proper collection and preservation of fabric.
1. Large Articles
a. Make sure that the correct position of any large material such as upholstered chair or
mattress is recorded prior to its removal and collection. Aside from drawing a sketch of
the crime scene, show how a large material, e.g. mattress, is positioned relative to
another material, e.g headboard.
b. Air-dry wet surfaces before packing.
c. When folding a fabric, make sure the ripped edges are protected. Put the fabric in a
clean bag then fasten and mark. Avoid packaging petroleum-laced materials in plastic
bags or bottles.
d. If cutting the fabric cannot be avoided, be careful not to cut across vital areas such as
bullet holes or wound areas. Never stretch or tear fabrics.
e. Put large articles such as mattresses and upholstered chairs in large crates or boxes.
f. Mark all the evidence with initials, the date and an exhibit number.
g. If possible, collect a comparison standard.

2. Small Articles
a. Search for small articles of fabric on the victim's mouth, feet or hands. Use tweezers
to pick up small fibers so that ripped edges are protected.

b. Air-dry the wet surface of the fabrics before packaging. Make sure these surfaces are
covered with non-abrasive material before sending
C. Put small fabrics in containers large enough so that they would not be folded. Folding
can cause alteration of threads.
d. be extra careful when handling fabric impression in paint, metal surfaces and putty.
e. Pack fabric impressions separately in glass or plastic vials or any appropriate
container.
Fasten the container and mark With initials, the date and an exhibit number.
f. Collect a comparison standard.
FINGERPRINTS
Latent impressions, regardless of the area of the ridges present, are oi the greatest
importance to the Criminal investigator as their identification may solve the crime and
result in successful prosecution of the subject.
1. On Absorbent Materials
a. Put the absorbent material in a plastic bag. Mark the bag with initials, the date and an
exhibit number.
b. Do not directly handle the material with your fingers. Wear a pair of light cloth gloves.
Handle an object only by its edges or surfaces, insofar as it is necessary.
C. Avoid processing the fingerprints on absorbent surfaces unless you are trained to
perform such a function.
d. Collect standard fingerprints that were properly and legibly taken for comparison.
2. On Hard Objects
Developing latent prints
a. No attempt should be made to brush or apply powder to prints in dust, and to greasy
or bloody prints since this will surely destroy them. Objects, which have been wet or
immersed in water may still bear identifiable latent impressions. Before any examination
is attempted, however, the object must be dried.
b. When the latent is plainly visible, it should be photographed before any effort is made
to develop it.
C. Remove dust and other foreign matters by blowing or fanning the suspected surface.
d. Place a quantity of powder on a clean sheet of paper.
Lifting Latent prints
a. Get a piece of lifting tape from the roll without cutting. Do not jerk, but pull slowly and
gradually, not straight out from the roll but back and downward.
b. Hold the roll in one hand and the tape in the other. Place the end of the tape about
inch in front of the print and firmly press the tape evenly over the print by sliding your
thumb over it.
C. Remove the tape from the surface by pulling slowly until the tape is almost entirely
clear from the surface.
d. Cut off the section used and mount the lifted print on a Crime Scene Evidence
Logbook.
e. During the entire operation, never touch the gummed side of the tape.
f. Mark fingerprint evidence collected properly with your initials, the date, and location
and have it initialed by at least two witnesses.
g. Collect standard fingerprints which were properly and legibly taken for comparison.
3. On Soft Surfaces
a. Be extra careful when extracting fingerprint impressions on soft surfaces such as
putty. Permit as much excess material surrounding the fingerprint as possible.
b. Paste the material with the fingerprints on a stiff cardboard surface. Mark the
cardboard surface with your initials, the date, and an exhibit number.
C. Tape a paper cup or glass baby food jar on the evidence for protection. Do not touch
the fingerprint.
d. Collect a comparison standard. submit the tape containing the fingerprint impressions
to the laboratory in the condition when it was found.
4. On Skin
a. Fingerprints may be found on the victim's skin especially if the suspect held him/her.
Collect the prints immediately since fingerprints on the skin deteriorate rapidly. When
extracting the prints, use methods like dusting, chemical, electronic or photographic
techniques. Avoid washing the skin area prior to processing of the fingerprints.
b. Collect a comparison standard. Gather and identify the fingerprints of the suspect and
the victim and those who touched an object under investigation. Put the fingerprint
evidence in a envelope and fasten. Mark the envelope with your initials, the date and an
exhibit number.
FIREARMS AND AMMUNITION
Bullets and cartridges have the unique markings of the firearm from which they were
discharged.
In addition, firearms leave a visible residue on the shooter's hands. The succeeding
paragraphs provide for the proper collection and preservation of the gunshot residue,
firearms, serial numbered items, weapons, spent bullets and spent cartridges.
1. Gunshot Residue
a. Wash your hands or wear a pair of gloves.
b. Get swabs of the back of the suspect's left and right hand using cotton swabs
moistened with 5 percent nitric acid. Do the same for the suspects right and left hand
palm areas. Put the swabs in a plastic bag and mark with your initials, the date and an
exhibit number.
c. Get swabs of the right and left facial cheek areas if a rifle or shotgun is involved.
d. Do not attempt to collect swabs if a .22 caliber was involved; if more than six hours
have lapsed; or it the suspect has washed his hands.
e. Make a control swab by wetting a cotton swab with dilute acid. Then put the swab
inside a plastic bag marked as "Control swab".
f. Get a swab of the interior of a spent casing using water, instead of acid. Put the swab
in plastic bag marked as "casing".
g. Put clothing evidence intended for gunshot residue testing inside a plastic bag. Mark
the
bag with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.
h. Send the firearm to the laboratory to determine the distance from the bullet hole to
the firearm muzzle. If the ammunition is available, send it with the weapon.
2. Small Firearms
a. Photograph the weapon before conducting the examination.
b. Dust the weapon for fingerprints.
c. Remove magazine from automatic loading weapons.
d. Do not operate mechanism except to unload.
e. Sketch the relative position of the spent casings and live rounds with respect to the
barrel.
f. Affix an identification tag to the weapon which will contain a brief description of the
firearm, make, model type caliber or gauge destination serial number, your initials, the
date and an exhibit number.
g. Scratch initials or marks of identification on side of frame received back strap, bangle,
etc.
h. Do not use "X" to mark stocks, side plates or any pale that can be readily removed or
replaced.
i. Record the absence or presence of round in the chamber. Dust the outer surface of
the clip for prints. Put the clip in an envelope then mark.
j. Put the weapon in a plastic bag or paper bag, Mark the bag with your initials, the date,
and an exhibit number.
k. Do not send a loaded firearm through the mail.
3. Serial Numbers
a. If the serial number has been erased put an identifying mark on the weapon.
b. Attach an identification tag to the weapon with your initials, the date and an exhibit
number.
C. Put the weapon in a paper or plastic bag
d. Do not attempt to retrieve the serial number using acid-etch solutions.
4 Shoulder Weapons
a. Photograph the weapon before conducting the examination.
b. Dust the weapon for concealed prints.
C. Do not clean or fire.
d. Record the absence or presence of round in the chamber.
e. Attach an evidence tag to the weapon with the weapon's description and serial
number.
f. Dust the outer surface of the clip for hidden fingerprints.
g Put the clip in an envelope and mark.
h. Put the unloaded weapon in a wooden or rigid cardboard box and fasten. Mark the
box with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.
5. Fired Bullets
a. Photograph the bullets before conducting the examination.
b. Extract the used bullet from the object excluding the material around it.
C. Do not wash or clean.
d. Cover the bullet with cotton then place it in an unbreakable container. Pack the
bullets separately.
e. Mark the container with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.
6. Fired Cartridge Cases
d. Photograph the fired metallic cartridge case before conducting the examination.
D. Do not mutilate, scratch or nick head of shell.
C. lt recovered in revolver cylinder mark chambers to correspond with shell designation.
d. Note as to mark of identification used.
e. Sketch showing relative position of shells if recovered on fioor, or sheet.
f. Transmit the information to laboratory. Scratch initial or mark of identification near
mouth of shell, preterably inside the mouth.
g. Do not scratch, mutilate head or read portion of cartridge case.
h. Roll individually in paper.
i. Place rubber band around paper.
j. Place wrapped cartridges in a heavy paper envelope.
k. Forward to laboratory. Mark the bag with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.
7. Fired Paper Shot Shells
a. Photograph the fired paper shot shells before conducting examination.
b. Do not mutilate, scratch or nick head of shell.
c.Note as to mark of identification used.
d. Sketch showing relative position of shells when recovered on floor or streets.
e. Transmit the information to the laboratory.
f. With ink or indelible pencil, mark inside of shells using initials of person recovering.
g. Do not scratch, nick, or mutilate brass head of shel
h. Roll individually in paper.
i. Place wrapped cartridges in heavy paper envelope.
j. Forward to laboratory. Mark the bag with your initials, the date, and an exhibit number.
8.Shot Pellets
a. Photograph the shot pellets before conducting the examination.
b. Recover as many as possible. Do not mutilate in removal.
C. Source the position of recovered pellets.
d. Record number and send it to the laboratory
e. Note mark of identification used on seal.
f. Seal container-marking seal with mark of identification on gum label seal on envelope.
g. Use pillbox as shipping container.
h. Place box in envelope, and sealing envelope.
i. Indicate source of pellets on envelope.
j. Forward to laboratory. Mark the bag with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.
9. Shot Wads
a. Photograph the shot wads before conducting the examination.
b. Recover as many as possible.
C. Recover the source of the wads.
d. Transmit the information to the laboratory.
e. Make notes on the mark of identification used.
f. Using ink or indelible pencil, inscribe initials of person recovering or mark
identification.
g.Do not use "X, place in paper envelope, sealing for transmission to laboratory.
h. Place in paper envelope indicating source on envelope.
i. Forward to laboratory. Mark the bag with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.
j. Gather the spent wads and record their location. Put them separately in paper
envelopes.
k. Mark the envelope with the required identification.
FOOD AND DRUG SPECIMENS
It is a well-entrenched rule that evidence such as food and drug specimens may link a
suspect with the
crime or corroborate other evidence.

1. Liquids
a. Gather a minimum of one pint of the liquid using a leak proof container.
b. Fasten the container with adhesive tape and mark with your initials, the date and
exhibit number.
C. Mark glass containers with "fragile".
d. Collect a comparison standard.
2. Plant Materials
a. Air dry samples by putting it on a piece of paper for 24 hours.
b. When thoroughly dried, put the evidence in a pillbox or a vial and fasten with tape.
C. Pack each sample separately.
d. Weigh the contents.
e. Mark the container with your initials, the date and exhibit number.
f. Collect a comparison standard
3. Powder or Solids
a. Put in a container such as a pillbox or a vial.
b. Weigh the contents.
C. Fasten the container and mark with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.
d. Refrigerate the evidence if required. Do not attempt to add preservatives to solid food
samples.
e. Collect a comparison standard.
4. Tablets and Capsules
a. Put the evidence in a plastic vial or a pillbox.
b. Record the contents.
C. Fasten the container and mark with your initials, the date and an exhibit number.
d. Collect a comparison standard. Search the refrigerator or cupboard for similar
materials, which are marked. Avoid removing the samples from their original
Containers. Put them sterile, clean containers and refrigerate to inhibit the growth of
bacteria. Similar comparison standards for drugs are collected following the same
procedure. Do not mix specimens in a single bag even if they were found close similar
in appearance.
GLASS
Glass may contain hidden fingerprints and should be packed properly. lf glass
fragments are found in shoes or clothing, collect these and bring to the laboratory for
analysis. The succeeding paragraphs indicate now large or small glass fragments
should be gathered and preserved.
HAIRS AND FIBERS
In crimes involving physical contact, particles are often transferred to the victim,
suspect, and weapon or other objects. Most common of these evidential particles are
hairs and fibers. These pieces of evidence may be indispensable to an investigation.
Hence, basic knowledge on the proper collection and handling of these evidentiary
items is therefore essential.
How to Obtain a Standard sample of hair strands and fibers for comparison
To collect hair samples from an individual, pull out about twenty hairs with tweezers or a
clean comb.
This is the more desirable method. Another method is to cut off hair close to the scalp or
skin as possible.
In this case, care must be taken because misleading information can result especially if
hair has been recently dyed.
Collect samples of hair (pulled, combed or cut) from different parts of the body such as
the arms, armpits, chest, legs, and pubic area and hair surrounding any wounds on the
body. Store separately according to location and mark each receptacle with your initials,
the date, and exhibit number.

SCENE OF THE CRIME OPERATION (SOCO)

Crime Scene, defined.
Crime scene is an area or vicinity of occurrence of physical evidence.
What Constitute a Crime Scene?
The crime scene can be understood to include all areas in which the criminal, any
possible victim, and any eyewitnesses moved during the time the crime was Committed.
What are the locations in the given example that constitute the crime scene?
1. Bedroom
2. Car
3. Small hut
4. Area around the grave
Crime Scene Investigation, defined.
It is the conduct of processes, more particularly the recognition, search, handling,
preservation and documentation of physical evidence to include the identification and
interview of witnesses and the arrest of suspect/s at the crime scene.
First Responder
First responder is any police officer who first arrives at the crime scene and shall
endeavor to protect and secure the crime scene. The first responder must ne able to
properly preserve the crime scene in order to get maximum scientific information that
will help in the successful prosecution of the perpetrator of the crime.
Tne first responder must do the following upon arrival at the crime scene:
a. Cordon off the crime scene with whatever available materials like police line, if
available, or ropes,
straws or human barricade;
b. Evacuate injured persons to the nearest hospital;
C. Prepare to take the "dying declaration" of severely injured person, if any;
d. Prevent entry/exit of persons within the cordoned area; and
e. Prepare to brief the investigators of the situation upon their arrival.
Crime Scene Analysis or Crime Scene Response
Crime scene analysis or crime scene response is much more than processing
(searching) and documenting (notes, photos, Sketches), and certainly more than
packaging (collecting) and tagging (preserving evidence).
Cases Falling Under the SOCO Category
a) Murder
b) Homicide
c) Rape with Homicide
d) Arson
e) Robbery with Homicide
f) Other heinous/sensational cases as directed by higher headquarters and other cases
where SOCO assistance is necessary.
Composition of SOcO Team
a) Team Leader
b) Driver/ Evidence Custodian
c) SOCO Specialists/Technicians
a. Health officer
b. Crime photographer
C. Sketcher/ Measurer
d. Forensic chemical officer

Basic SOCO Equipment / Materials

1 Police Line
2 Measuring device e.g. ruler and measuring tape
3. Recording materials e.g. chalk, notebook, sketching and paper pad, pencils, Pentel
pens, permanent ink marker and coupon bond
4 SLR camera with film
5 Video camera
6 Tape recorder
7 Evidence collection kit
8 Compass
9 Search light with battery charger
10 Evidence tags/markers
11 First Aid kit
12 Paper bags (all sizes)
13 Stylus
14 Vernier Caliper
15 Micrometer
16 Paraffin wax
17. SOCO forms and Crime Lab request form
18. Gloves
19. Gauze
20. Fingerprint card
21. Black and White latent lifting card
22. Eraser
23. Stapler with extra staple wire
24. Kit board
SOCO Tools
1. Flashlight
2. Scissors
3. Knife (heavy duty and folding)
4 Rulers and measuring tapes
5. Adjustable wrench
6. Pliers
7. Wire cutter
8. Complete screwdriver set
9.Saw
10. Hammer
11. Ax or hatchet
12. Shovel
13. Fingerprint magnifier
14. Nylon brush
15. Magnet
16. Spatula
17. Box of plaster of Paris for casting of lifting
18. Goggles
19. Sitting screen
20. Funnel (different sizes)
21. Scalpels
22. Ladder
Preparation
Basic Equipments
Police line
Marker
Camera with film
Evidence collection kit
Video camera & tape recorder
Measuring device e.g. ruler and measuring tape
Flash lights, hand gloves, masks, eye goggles, hair net
Recording materials e.g. chalk bond paper, pencil, clipboard, Pentel pens
Evidence Containers
Glass vials
Absorbent cottons
Cardboard boxes
Paper bags, plastic bags
String tags - large and small
Plastic gallons, bottles (small and large)
Evidence tape of masking/scotch tape
Approaching the Crime Scene:
Be alert
Make pertinent notes as to possible entry and exit points of the perpetrator.
Crime Scene Investigation Proper
The following are the procedures in the crime scene investigation proper
a. Receipt of briefing and designation of command post
The Team Leader upon arrival at the crime scene receive the briefing from the first
responder and shall immediately designate a command post.
Command Post - is an area which is ideally located adjacent to the crime scene where
the CSI evidence custodian stays and receives the pieces of evidence turned over to
him for safekeeping by the other evidence collectors.
b. Initiation of Preliminary Survey
The Team Leader makes a general assessment of the scene, takes a cautious walk-
through of the crime scene, takes down extensive notes to document important factors
and establishes the evidence most likely to be encountered. He then defines the extent
of the search area, and determines personnel and equipment needed, and makes
specific assignments. From his assessments, he develops a general theory of the crime
scene.
C. Preparation of Narrative Report
The Team Leader uses the systematic approach in making a narrative report.
d. Documentation of the Crime Scene
The photographer should begin taking photographs as soon as possible. The taking of
photographs of the crime scene must be from general to specific areas. The evidence
collectors should not touch or move any evidence where it is originally located until it
has been identified, photographed, sketched, measured and recorded.
e. Crime Scene Sketches
A rough sketch should be prepared indicating actual measurement of things with scale
and proportion observed and oriented to the North Pole. All necessary information
should be placed in the sketch.
f. Detailed Search
The search for physical evidence must be done using the accepted methods of search
depending upon the actual location to be searched.
g. Collection of Physical Evidence done
The search for physical evidence mu upon using the accepted methods of search
depend the actual location to be searched.
g. Collection of Physical Evidence
The competence to recognize and properly collect physical evidence is critical to both
solving and prosecuting crimes. The Team Leader should be informed always of the
significant evidence located. It must be noted that the evidence collector should put his
initial, location and date of collection on the item and turn it over to the evidence
custodian tor documentation and safe-keeping
h. Conduct of Final Survey
The Team Leader shall make a final review of the crime scene to determine whether or
not the processing has been completed.
i. Release of the Crime Scene
The release of the crime scene shall be done if the investigator is satisfied that all
pieces of evidence have been recovered. Hence, the investigator must evaluate the
items recovered from the results of interrogation of the suspect/s and the interview of
the witnesses. It must be noted that upon formal release of the crime scene to the
proper authority, a warrant is already required for his re-entry to the crime scene.
Crime Scene Photography
The purpose of taking photographs of the crime scene is to create an accurate objective
visual record of the crime scene before any physical evidence is moved or removed
from its original location.
Guidelines for taking photographs of a Crime Scene
During the conduct of the crime scene operation, it is basic that photographs of a crime
scene should be taken as soon as possible before the start of note- taking, sketching
and searching for physical evidence.
It must be noted that the photographs should illustrate the original, uncontaminated
condition off the crime scene.
Photographs should be taken of the crime scene only. No investigator or any police
personnel should be photographed on the crime scene. The photographs must form an
organized sequence and show all relevant locations and objects.
The crime scene photographs must progress from general to specific.
must form an organized sequence and show all relevant locations and objects.
The crime scene photographs must progress from general to specific.
Crime Scene Sketches
Sketches are useful in questioning the suspects and witnesses as well as in writing the
investigative reports.
A rough sketch must be made indicating the actual measurement pf things with scale
and proportion observed and oriented to the North Pole. All necessary information must
be placed in the sketch.
Sketches are excellent companions to photograph.
Where photographs provide exact details, sketches gives accurate information about
the placement of objects and they show relationship and distances between things.
Note-Taking
Note-taking must be a constant activity throughout the processing of the crime scene.
Notes must include:
a. Detailed written description of the Crime Scene with locations ot physical evidence
received.
b. The time when the physical evidence was discovered.
C. The person who discovered and collected the physical evidence.
d. How the evidence was packaged and marked.
e. The disposition of the item when it was collected.
Documentation
Documentation is made by the crime scene investigator for purposes of future crime
scene reconstruction which will help the prosecutor and the judge understand conditions
at the crime scene.
CRIME SCENE SEARCH
The search for physical evidence is done using the accepted methods of search
depending upon the actual location to be searched.
The crime scene search could only be started after the crime scene has been
photographed and sketched.
The primary duty of the SOCO Team Leader upon arrival at the crime scene is to make
proper coordination with the investigator-on-case or the officer-in-charge. The purpose
of coordination is to secure the approval of the investigator before the soco assumes
control of the Crime scene. The team may proceed with the processing after conducting
the general survey and after establishing a common approach path.
As every crime scene is unique, the employment of each method of search depends on
the physical nature of the scene and the kind of offense involved. Each approach varies
as the situation dictates. For purposes of scene of crime operation or crime scene
processing, the following methods may be employed:
1. QUADRANT OR ZONE SEARCH METHOD
In this method, one searcher is assigned to a quadrant. Then each quadrant is cut into
another set of quadrants.
2. STRIP OR LINE SEARCH METHOD

ln this method, the area is blocked out in the form of a rectangle. The searcher proceed
slowly at the same pace along path parallel to one side of the rectangle. When a piece
of evidence is found, the finder announces his discovery and the search must stop until
the evidence has been cared for. A photographer is called, if necessary. The evidence
is collected and tagged and the search proceeds at given signal. At the end of the
rectangle, the searcher turns and proceeds along new lanes as shown in the above
illustration.
3. SPIRAL SEARCH METHOD
In this method, the searchers follow each other along the path of a spiral, beginning on
the outside and spiraling in towards the center.
4. GRID OR DOUBLE STRIP SEARCH METHOD
The grid or double strip method of search is a modification of strip search method. Here,
the rectangle is traversed first parallel to the base then parallel to the side.
5. WHEEL SEARCH METHOD
In this method of search, the area is considered to proximately circular. The searchers
gather at the center and proceed outward along radii or spokes. The procedure should
be repeated several times depending on the size of the circle and the number or
searchers. One shortcoming of this method is the great increase in the area to be
observed as the searcher departs from the center .
Purpose of a Crime Scene Search
a. To systematically look for physical evidence that may prove useful in establishing that
a crime has been committed.
b. To determine what method of operation the perpetrator may have used.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
ABRASION is a non-penetrating type of injury where there is a scrapping-off or removal
of the outer or superficial layer of the skin brought about by friction or rubbing-on of the
body against hard or rough surface.
AMMUNITION is a metallic or non-metallic body usually referred to as bullet.
ASPHYXIA is a condition in which the supply of oxygen to the blood and the tissues has
been reduced to below normal physiologic level.
BALLISTICIAN OR FIREARMS EXAMINER OR FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
TECHNICIAN
person whose knowledge in firearm identification is accepted by the courts and other
investigative agencies.
BALLISTICS is the branch of applied physics dealing with the motion of projectiles and
the conditions governing such motion. It is the study of natural laws relating to the
performance of gunpowder and projectiles in firearms and the means for predicting such
performance.
BULLET TRAJECTORY COLLECTION AND EXAMINATION is an examination
conducted on a motor vehicle to determine the point of entry and exit of the bullet which
hit it as well as the size of the bullet that was fired on the target motor vehicle.
BURNING OR COMBUSTION is the rapid oxidation of substances accompanied by the
generation of heat and light.
CALIBER is the diameter of the inner surface of the barrel that is measured from land to
land (raised portions)
CAMERA is a light tight box, with a means of forming the image (lens), with a means of
holding sensitized material (film holder) and with a means of controlling the amount of
light that will reach the film. It is a device used in photographing an object. I’m
CARTRIDGE is a complete unfired unit, which is made up of bullet, cartridge case,
primer and gunpowder.
CASTING is a process whereby a reproduction of an object is secured by introducing a
suitable hardening material into a mold or an impression.
CHAMBER is the conical rear portion of the barrel where the cartridge is inserted.
CHEMICAL ETCHING is a process employed in restoring serial number.
CONTUSION COLLAR is an abraded portion of entry on gunshot wounds resulting
from the heat and impact of the bullet on the skin.
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATOR is a person who collects facts and locates the guilty party
and provides evidence of his guilt.
DETONATION is a violet explosion, one resulting from the instantaneous
decomposition or combustion of unstable compounds.
DIRECT MOTION is the action of the expansive force of gases out of the burning
powder.
DRUG is a chemical substance that brings about physical, physiological, behavioral
and/or psychological change in a person taking it.
DRUG TEST is the determination or the presence of abused drugs in body fluids.
DRUG USER/ADDICT refers to an individual who is dependent on a certain drug or
drugs.
DRUG ABUSE is the use of a chemical substance, licit or illicit, which results in an
individual’s physical, mental, emotional or social impairment.
EVIDENCE CUSTODIAN is the person in charge keeping all pieces of evidence
recovered from the crime scene for submission to the different technical divisions for
examination.
EVIDENCE is the means sanctioned by the Rules of Court of ascertaining in a judicial
proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact.
EXAMINATION is the act of making a close and critical study of any material and with
question documents. It is the process necessary to discover the facts about them.
EXHUMATION OF CADAVER is a process of exhuming a buried cadaver to be
subjected for medico-legal examination.
EXPLOSIVE is any substance that may cause explosion by its sudden decomposition
or combustion.
EXTERIOR BALLISTICS is the motion of projectile from the muzzle of the gun to the
target.
FIELD LABORATORY WORK is a Crime Laboratory operation wherein laboratory
technicians are sent to the crime scene to collect physical evidence for examination by
the PNP Crime Laboratory.
FIREARMS (Legal definition) includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols,
revolvers and all other deadly weapons from which a bullet, a ball, a sho, shell or
missiles may be discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also
includes air rifles, except those that are small in caliber and usually used as toys.
FIREARMS (Technical definition) is an instrument that is used for the propulsion of
projectiles by means of expansive force of gases of burning powder.
FIRED OR EVIDENCE CARTRIDGE CASES are those recovered from the crime scene
or from the cylinder of a firearm found at the same scene or specimen submitted by the
investigator.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS is the science of firearm identification by means of
ammunition fired through them.
FORENSIC CHEMIST is an expert in the field of Forensic Chemistry and takes charge
of the collection of hairs, fibers, poisons, explosive, drugs, etc.
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY is the science that deals with the study and application of
chemical principles in solution to problem that arises in connection with the
administration of justice.
GUNSHOT WOUND is a wound that is brought about by powder propelled substance.
GYROSCOPIC ACTION is the stillness of the rotating motion of the projectile after
leaving the muzzle of the firearm.
LABORATORY TECHNICIAN is one who is capable of collecting evidence related to
this field of expertise.
MACRO-ETCHING EXAMINATION is a method of examination wherein the serial
number of the motor vehicle is tested with acid and other chemical reagents in order to
restore its original number.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION is any study or examination, which is made with the
microscope in order to discover minute physical details.
MOTION is the movement of the projectile (bullet) from one point to another. It is
divided into direct, rotatory, and translational.
MUG-SHOT is the process of taking photographs of the Suspect(s) in full length, right
and left side views and two quarter view.
PARAFFIN TEST is an examination conducted to a suspected shooter to determine the
presence of gunpowder nitrates using melted paraffin wax.
POSTMORTEM LIVIDITY is the state of discoloration (bluish-purple) of the skin due to
loss of oxygen to the blood in small vessels and capillaries after death. This occurs on
the most dependent parts of the body.
PROJECTILE is a metallic or non- dependent upon referred to as bullet that is
completely an outside force for its power.
RIGOR MORTIS is the state wherein complete muscular rigidity caused certain
biochemical changes in the body occurring several hours after death.
SEMEN is the viscid albuminous fluid with a faint grayish-yellow color with a chlorinous-
fishy odor and contains spermatozoa, cells, lecithin bodies, hormones and other
substances.
SMUDGING is the black discoloration produced around the gunshot hole when the gun
is held about 2-8 inches to the victim.
SOCO ASSISTANCE is a service rendered by Crime Lab to the public to effectively and
efficiently process a crime scene so as to ensure a successful prosecution of cases.
SPERMATOZOA (Sperms) is a living organism containing half of the human genetic
material present in the seminal fluid, consisting of a head, neck and tail. Normally
ejaculate semen contains 60 millions spermatozoa per cubic centimeter and may be
recovered from the female genital tract up to 72 hours after intercourse, depending on
the physiologic conditions.
STANDARDS are condensed and compact sets of authentic specimen which, if
adequate and proper, should contain a cross-section of material from a known source.
TATTOOING is a black coarsely peppered pattern produced around the gunshot hole
when the gun is held about 8-36 inches to the victim.
TOXICOLOGY is the science that, deals with poison, their origin, physical and chemical
properties, effects, treatment of these effects, and method of detection.
TRACE EVIDENCE is any material or article found or recovered during the investigation
which may assist in the solution of a case and the prosecution of the guilty.
TRAJECTORY is the parabola-like flight of the projectile or bullet from the time it leaves
the muzzle of the firearm up to the time it hits the target.
VAGINA is that musculo-membranous tube which extends from the vulva to the uterus.