WHAT IS DNA?

• The deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) molecule
is the genetic
blueprint for each
cell and ultimately
the blueprint that
determines every
characteristic of a
living organism.
• In 1953, American
biochemist James
Watson, and British
biophysicist Francis
Crick described the
structure of the
DNA molecule as a
double helix,
somewhat like a
spiral staircase with
• Their work was aided by
X-ray diffraction
pictures of the DNA
molecule taken by British
biophysicist Maurice
Wilkins and British
physical chemist
Rosalinda Franklin.
• In 1962 Crick, Watson,
Wilkins received the
Nobel Prize for their
pioneering work on the
structure of the DNA
molecule.
• In 1985, DNA analysis
was first recognized as
having application to
forensic science by the
British molecular
biologist Sir Alec John
Jeffreys. DNA has been
utilized as a new
powerful tool for human
BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE AMENABLE FOR
DNA ANALYSIS
Biological evidences that can be submitted for the DNA analysis:
Blood and blood stain
Semen and seminal stain
Hairs and follicles or root
Saliva or Buccal swab
Bones and organs
Tissues and cells
 
Semen
A biological substance secreted by males that consists of a
combination of seminal fluid and spermatozoa.

Seminal Fluid
A biological fluid produced by males for the transport of spermatozoa.
May be absent of spermatozoa in vasectomized males or males with
certain medical conditions.

Blood- is an excellent source of human DNA. DNA is present in white

blood cells of humans, but not red blood cells which lack nuclei. A
dime-sized spot of blood, approximately 50 µl in volume, is enough
DNA for a typical VNTR analysis.
DNA from sperm heads is usually the most important source of DNA
evidence for sexual assault cases. Five µl of semen contains
approximately the same amount of DNA as 50 µl of blood. Special
extraction methods are required to release DNA from sperm heads.
Consequently sexual assault samples can be differentially extracted.
The first extraction yields primarily DNA from epithelial cells of the
victim, and the second extraction yields primarily semen DNA.
Saliva contains cellular material. DNA can be extracted from bite
marks, cigarette butts, postage stamps on envelopes, and envelope
flaps for DNA analysis. In fact, the "Unabomber" was convicted
partially on DNA evidence from a letter-bomb he mailed that did not
explode.
The hair follicle at the base of human hairs contains cellular material rich in
DNA. In order to be used for DNA analysis, the hair must have been pulled
from the body -- hairs that have been broken off do not contain DNA.
Any body tissue that has not been degraded is a potential source of DNA.
Bone is one of the best sources of DNA from decomposed human remains.
Even after the flesh is decomposed, DNA can often be obtained from
demineralized bone. DNA from bone has been used to identify the
repatrioted bones from Vietnam era servicemen, and the remains of the
White Russian Romanov family who were executed during the Bolsheviek
revolution. Like bones, teeth can also be an excellent source of DNA, long
after the rest of the body has decomposed.
Urine itself does not contain DNA, but it may contain epithelial cells, which
do contain DNA. Most healthy individuals, however, do not excrete epithelial
cells in their urine.
ADVANTAGE OF DNA ANALYSIS VS
CONVENTIONAL SEROLOGICAL METHOD
In the forensic community, Conventional serology and DNA analysis
are closely related.
In fact, in many laboratories they are included within the same
personnel section.
In the forensic crime laboratory, “serology analysis” refers to the
screening of evidence for bodily fluids, whereas “DNA analysis” refers
to the efforts to individualize bodily fluids to a specific person. In most
cases, bodily fluid identification is performed on evidentiary items
before DNA analysis is attempted.
Depending on the qualifications of laboratory personnel, analysts can
be trained to perform either serology or DNA analysis or can be
trained in both disciplines.
Although serology procedures have been employed for most of the
20th century and the techniques have essentially remained
unchanged, DNA has emerged in the forensic realm within the last
two decades and its applications and technology are continuously
developing.
Serology methods are relatively simple and straightforward.
Forensic serology is not to be confused with conventional serology,
which deals solely with serum and its properties.
In Over all the Advantage of DNA analysis is Direct-to-consumer
genetic testing promotes awareness of genetic diseases. It provides
personalized information about your health, disease risk, and other
traits. It may help you be more proactive about your health.
Serological methods are used for measuring the antibody response
while the presence of virus can be demonstrated by cultivation or
demonstration of specific antigens or gene sequences. For the latter,
molecular diagnostic methods have become more and more widely
applied.
A large selection of conventional serology reagents to complement
routine techniques and support problematic or complex sample
analysis. Grifols conventional serology reagents use the tube
technique in conjunction with various reagent formats for
conducting routine blood typing techniques with confidence and
simplicity.
Types of DNA ANALYSIS
Polymerase chain Reaction- What is a PCR test? PCR means
polymerase chain reaction. It's a test to detect genetic material from
a specific organism, such as a virus. The test detects the presence of
a virus if you have the virus at the time of the test. The test could
also detect fragments of the virus even after you are no longer
infected.
Short Tandem Repeats - A short tandem repeat is a microsatellite
with repeat units that are 2 to 7 base pairs in length, with the
number of repeats varying among individuals, making STRs effective
for human identification purposes.
Y-Chromosomes- The Y chromosome is one of the two sex
chromosomes in humans (the other is the X chromosome). The
sex chromosomes form one of the 23 pairs of human
chromosomes in each cell. The Y chromosome spans more than
59 million building blocks of DNA (base pairs) and represents
almost 2 percent of the total DNA in cells.
Mitocondrial DNA- Some of the enzymes in those pathways, and
some of the proteins that are needed to function in those
pathways, are produced by the mitoc hondri a l DN A . T he
mitochondrial DNA is critically important for many of the
pathways that produce energy within the mitochondria.
There are different types of serological tests—for example,
flocculation tests, neutralization tests, hemagglutinin-inhibition
tests, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and chemiluminescence
immunoassays.

FLOCCULATION TEST OR COMPLEMENT-FIXATION TESTS : are

the most common. These are based on the precipitation, or
flocculation, that takes place when an antibody and specially
prepared antigens (substances that provoke antibody production in
the body) are mixed together.
NEUTRALIZATION TESTS: depend on the capacity of an antibody
to neutralize the infectious properties of the infectious organisms.

HEMAGGLUTININ-INHIBITION TESTS: are based on the ability of

viruses to cause the red blood cells of certain animal species to
agglutinate (congeal, or clump together); this agglutination will be
prevented by the antibody. ELISAs make use of fluorescent, light
(chemiluminescent), or colorimetric signal detection; the signals are
produced by enzymatic reactions that occur during the detection
and quantification of a specific antigen or antibody in a solution.
 vRAPE
vMURDER
LINE UP vHOMICIDE
CASES vROBBERY
WHERE DNA vHIT AND RUN
ANALYSIS
CAN BE OF
vEXTORTION

HELP vPATERNITY CASE

vIDENTIFICATION OR REMAINS
FROM DISASTER CASES AND
MISSING PERSON
IDENTIFYING DNA EVIDENCE
What is DNA Evidence?
One of the most reliable forms of evidence in many criminal cases
is in our genes, encoded in DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA
evidence can be collected from blood, hair, skin cells, and other
bodily substances. It can even be used to solve old crimes that
occurred prior to the development of DNA-testing technology.
Similar to fingerprints, each individual has a unique DNA profile
(except for identical twins, who share the same genetic code). But
unlike fingerprints, only a minuscule amount of genetic material is
needed to identify a suspect.
Identifying DNA Evidence
Since only a few cells can be sufficient to obtain useful DNA
information to help your case, the list below identifies some
common items of evidence that you may need to collect, the
possible location of the DNA on the evidence, and the biological
source containing the cells. Remember that just because you
cannot see a stain does not mean there are not enough cells for
DNA typing. Further, DNA does more than just identify the source
of the sample; it can place a known individual at a crime scene, in
a home, or in a room where the suspect claimed not to have been.
It can refute a claim of self-defense and put a weapon in the
suspect's hand. It can change a story from an alibi to one of
consent. The more officers know how to use DNA, the more
powerful a tool it becomes.
 Evidence Possible Location of DNA on the Source of DNA
Evidence
baseball bat or similar weapon handle, end sweat, skin, blood, tissue
hat, bandanna, or mask inside sweat, hair, dandruff
eyeglasses nose or ear pieces, lens sweat, hair, dandruff
facial tissue, cotton swab surface area mucus, blood, sweat, semen, ear wax
dirty laundry surface area blood, sweat, semen
toothpick tips saliva
used cigarette cigarette butt saliva
stamp or envelope licked area saliva
tape or ligature inside/outside surface skin, sweat
bottle, can, or glass sides, mouthpiece saliva, sweat
used condom inside/outside surface semen, vaginal or rectal cells
blanket, pillow, sheet surface area sweat, hair, semen, urine, saliva
through and through" bullet outside surface blood, tissue
bite mark person's skin or clothing saliva
fingernail, partial fingernail scrapings blood, sweat, tissue
How Does DNA Testing Work?
A sufficient amount of DNA may be found in virtually any type of
biological evidence. For violent crimes, such evidence typically
comes from blood or other bodily fluids. Hair and skin cells left at
the crime scene also may provide investigators with enough DNA
for testing purposes.
DNA evidence is analyzed using the polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) method, which allows for very small samples to be tested
and identified. Once the sample is tested, it may be cross-
referenced with DNA profiles already in a database or with
genetic data provided by a suspect.
While DNA testing is not completely foolproof, it is more than 99 percent
accurate (in fact, there is only a one in one billion chance that the DNA of
two individuals will match). Typically, errors in testing are the result of
mix-ups in the lab or the contamination of samples. Additionally, each state
has specific rules for DNA sample collection and handling. Courts might not
allow the use of genetic evidence in court if these requirements are not met.
Other Uses of Genetic Evidence
In addition to criminal investigations and trials, DNA can also be used to
exonerate wrongly accused individuals. This is particularly important for
those convicted of serious crimes solely on the basis of eyewitness testimony,
which is not always reliable. More than 250 people have been exonerated
through post-conviction DNA tests, according to the Innocence Project.
Also, DNA can be used to determine paternity in child support cases; to
identify the remains of crime and accident victims; and to conduct
genealogical research.
HOW DNA TYPING IS DONE?
DNA Typing
DNA typing is a laboratory procedure that detects normal variations
in a sample of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA typing is most often
used to establish identity, parentage, family relationship and
appropriate matches for transplantation of organs and tissues.
How is DNA typing done?
The DNA typing is done by analyzed using a panel of probes each
specific for a different locus. A DNA type is made up of a pattern of
different sized bands at different loci. The frequencies of the Variable
number tandem repeats or VNTRs that are inherited at each locus
determines the probability of a DNA match.
Here are the techniques or methods on how
DNA typing is done.
PATERNITY TESTING
DNA PATERNITY TEST
- Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic inherit from your
mother and father. Paternity refers to fatherhood. A DNA paternity
test uses DNA, usually taken from a cheek swab, to determine
whether a man is the child’s biological father.

- DNA paternity test is nearly 100% accurate in determining

whether a man is another person’s biological father. A test can show
with 99.99% accuracy if a man isn’t a person’s biological father. Also
a prenatal paternity test can determine fatherhood during pregnancy.
How is a DNA paternity test performed?
There are two equally accurate ways to test for paternity:
BLOOD TEST
The potential father and child give blood samples at a medical office.
The facility sends the samples to a lab for analysis.
CHEEK SWABS
The potential father and child swab inside their cheeks for buccal
(cheek) cells. You mail the cotton swab applicators to a designated
lab. If swabbing take place in a medical setting, the office sends the
samples to a lab.
Why do people need DNA paternity tests?
Establishing paternity can be important for several reasons:
- Gain legal rights to child support, child custody, social security
benefits and inheritance.
- Identify links to genetic conditions that can affect your long-
term health.
THANK YOU!
PREPARED BY: BSCRIM 4A GROUP 7
Agarpao, Nova Vie T.
Agoto, Irene Mae M.
Agustin, Beljan U.
Alagon, Rolando S.
Alariao, Jessica M.
Alejo, Larry D.
Ambrocio, Jesslyn E.
Arce, Alissa Mae R.
Argonza, Edmar Jr. M.
Argonza, Kemee F.
Babas, Ma. Jessa M.
Ballesteros, Deiah A.