UNIT – I

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF
IMAGE PROCESSING &
IMAGE TRANSFORMS

Text Books:
 Digital Image Processing – Gonzalez & Woods, 3rd Edition
 Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing – Anil K Jain
 Wavelet Transforms – Raghuveer
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CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Basic Steps of Image Processing System
 Sampling and Quantization of an Image
 Basic Relationship Between Pixels
 Image Transforms
 2D – Discrete Fourier Transform
 2D – Discrete Cosine Transform
 Wavelet Transform
• Continuous Wavelet Transform
• Discrete Wavelet Transform

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INTRODUCTION
 Image is a 2 – Dimensional Function
 Represented by f(x, y)
 x and y are the Spatial Coordinates
 Amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates (x, y) is Intensity or
Gray Level of the Image at that point
 If x and y are finite and f is a discrete quantity, the image is
called as Digital Image
 Processing of digital images by means of a digital computer
refers to Digital Image Processing
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 Digital Image is composed of a finite number of elements,
each has a particular location & value
 These elements are named as Pixels or Pels or Picture
Elements or Image Elements
 Pixel is the most widely used term to denote the elements of
a digital image

Representation of Image in Matrix Form

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BASIC STEPS OF IMAGE PROCESSING SYSTEM

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Fundamental Steps in Digital Image Processing Contd …
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 Digital Image Processing System has been classified into
two basis steps
 The first step has images as its input and output
 The second step has images as its input and the outputs are
the attributes extracted from these images
 Every process is not applied to an image
 All these methodologies can be applied to images for
different purposes and for different objectives

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Image Acquisition
 Used to acquire a digital image
 Image Sensor Equipment which have ability to digitize the
signal produced by the sensor is required
 Image Sensor can be either TV Camera or Line Scan Camera
Image Enhancement
 Manipulates the image
 So that the result is more suitable than the original for a
specific application
 Increasing the contrast of an image for better vision
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Image Restoration
 Improves the appearance of an image
 Restoration techniques are based on mathematical methods
or probabilistic methods of image degradation
Color Image Processing
 An area that has been gaining importance due to its significant
increase in the use of digital images over the internet
 Used to restore the natural characteristics of an image and to
preserve the color information associated with an image

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Wavelets
 Represents the images in various degrees of resolution
 Used for data compression & for pyramidal representation,
where images are sub-dived into smaller regions
Compression
 Technique for reducing the storage required to save an image
or bandwidth required to transmit
 Most important application over internet

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Morphological Processing
 Deals with tools for extracting the image components that
are
useful in the representation and description of shape
Segmentation
 Partitions an image into its constituent parts or objects
 Helps to distinguish different objects in an image
Eg – Traffic Control
 Key role of segmentation in the character recognition is to
extract individual characters or words from the background
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Representation & Description
 A process which transforms raw data into a form suitable
for subsequent computer processing
 Representation can done in two different ways
1. Boundary Representation is used when the details of
external shape characteristics are important
(Eg – Corners)
2. Regional Representation is used when the internal
properties are important
(Eg – Texture)
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 Description is also referred as feature selection
 Deals with extracting the attributes which results in same
quantitative information
 Also a base for differentiating one class of object from
another
Object Recognition
 Process that assigns label to an object based on its description
& the recognized object is interpreted by assigning a meaning
to it
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Knowledge Base
 Function is guide the operation of each processing module
and to control the interaction between them
 A feedback request through the knowledge base to the
segmentation is an example of knowledge utilization in
performing image processing tasks

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SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION OF AN IMAGE

 Formation of a digital image from a continuous image

involves two steps
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
To convert a continuous image into a digital image, the
spatial coordinates and amplitude are to be sampled or
digitized

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 The process of digitizing the coordinate values (both x & y)
is known as ‘Sampling’
 Sampling converts the image points into pixels
 The process of digitizing the amplitude values is known as
‘Quantization’

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Generating a Digital Image Contd …
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 The fig – a shows a Continuous Image
 The 1 – D function in fig – b is a plot of intensity values of
the continuous image along the line segment AB
 The random variations are due to noise
 To sample this function, the equally spaced samples along
the line AB are shown in fig – c
 The spatial locations of each sample are indicated by a
vertical tick mark in the bottom part of the figure

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 The samples are shown as small white squares superimposed
on the function
 The values of the samples still have a continuous range of
intensity values
 In order to form a digital function, the intensity values also
must be converted into discrete quantities
 The fig – d shows the intensity scale divided into 8 discrete
intervals ranging from black to white

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 The vertical tick marks indicate specific value assigned to
each of the eight intensity intervals
 The continuous intensity levels are quantized by assigning
one of the eight values to each sample
 Assignment is made depending on the vertical proximity of
of a sample to a vertical tick mark
 Digital samples resulting from both sampling &
quantization
are shown in fig – d
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 Starting at the top of the image & carrying out this procedure
line by line produces a 2 – D digital image
 In addition to the no. of discrete levels used, the accuracy
achieved in quantization is highly dependent on the noise
content of the sampled signal

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BASIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PIXELS

 The basic relationship between pixels of an image f(x, y)

are –
1. Neighbors of a Pixel
2. Adjacency
3. Distance Measures

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Neighbors of a Pixel – 4 Neighbors
Diagonal Neighbors
8 Neighbors
Adjacency – 4 Adjacent
8 Adjacent
M Adjacent (or) Mixed Adjacent
Distances Measures – Euclidean Distance
City Block Distance (or) D4 Distance

Chess Board Distance (or) D8 Distance

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 A pixel p with coordinates (x, y) has four horizontal and
vertical neighbors whose coordinates are
(x+1, y), (x-1, y), (x, y+1), (x, y-1)
 This set of pixels is named as the “4-Neighbors” of p
 The 4-Neighbors of p is denoted by N4(p)
 Each pixel is a unit distance from (x, y)
 Some of the neighbor locations of p lie outside the digital
image if (x, y) is on the border of the image

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 A pixel p with coordinates (x, y) has four diagonal neighbors
whose coordinates are
(x+1, y+1), (x+1, y-1), (x-1, y+1), (x-1, y-1)
 This set of pixels is named as the “Diagonal-Neighbors” of p
 The Diagonal-Neighbors of p is denoted by ND(p)
 The Diagonal Neighbors along with 4-Neighbors of p are
called as “8-Neighbors” of p

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 Two pixels p and q with values from V are “4-Adjacent” if
q is in the set N4(p)
 Two pixels p and q with values from V are “8-Adjacent” if
q is in the set N8(p)
 Two pixels p and q with values from V are “m-Adjacent”
if
(i) q is in the set N4(p) or

(ii) Q is in the set ND(p) and the set N4(p) ND(p) has no
pixels whose values are from V
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 For pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x, y), (s, t) and (v, w)
respectively, D is a “Distance Measure” or Distance
Function
or Distance Metric if
(i) D(p, q) ≥ 0, D(p, q) = 0 if p = q
(ii) D(p, q) = D(q, p)
(iii) D(p, z) ≤ D(p, q) + D(p, z)

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 The “Euclidian Distance” between p and q is defined as
De(p, q) = ((x-s)2 + (y-t)2)1/2
 The “City Block Distance” between p and q is defined as
D4(p, q) = │x-s│ + │y-t│
 The “Chess Board Distance” between p and q is defined as
D4(p, q) = max(│x-s│ + │y-t│)

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IMAGE TRANSFORMS

 The term Image Transform refers to a class of unitary

matrices
used for representing images
 An image can also be expanded in terms of a discrete set of
arrays is called as Basis Images
 The Basis Images can be generated by Unitary Matrices

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 The various types of Image Transforms are –
1. Discrete Fourier Transform
2. Discrete Cosine Transform
3. Sine Transform
4. Hadamard Transform
5. Haar Transform
6. Slant Transform
7. Walsh Transform
8. Wavelet Transform
9. Unitary Transform
10. KL Transform

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 The 2 – D Discrete Fourier Transform of an image is given by

 The Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform is given by

 The Twiddle Factor is given by

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 The N X N Cosine Transform matrix C = c(k, n) also called
as the Discrete Cosine Transform and is given by

 The 1 – D DCT of a sequence u(n) is defined as

 The Inverse DCT is given by

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Properties
1.The Cosine Transform is real and orthogonal
C = C* , For Real
C-1 = CT , For Orthogonal
2.The Cosine Transform is not the real part of the unitary DFT
3. The Cosine Transform is a fast transform
4.The Cosine Transform of a vector of N elements can be
calculated in O(N*log2N) operations via an N – point FFT
5.The Cosine Transform has an excellent energy compaction for
highly correlated data
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 The elements of the basis vector of the Hadamard
Transform
take only +1 or -1
 The Hadamard Transform matrices, Hn are N X N matrices,
where, N = 2n , n = 1, 2, 3, …….
 The Hadamard Transform matrix for n =1 is given by
H1 = (1/2)1/2 1 1
1 -1

 As n =1, N = 21 = 2 , The order of matrix is 2 X 2

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 The Hadamard Transform matrix is given by
Hn = (1/2)1/2 Hn-1 Hn-1

Hn-1 - Hn-1
 The Hadamard Transform of an N X 1 vector u is given by
v = Hu
 The Inverse Hadamard Transform is given by
u = Hv, where H = Hn , n = log2N
 The Hadamard Transform pair is given by

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Properties
1.The Hadamard Transform is real, Symmetric and orthogonal
For Real
For Orthogonal
For Symmetric
Thus, the forward ans inverse Sine Transforms are identical
2.The Sine Transform is a fast transform

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3. The 1 – D Transformation can be implemented in
O(N*log2N) additions and subtractions
4. It has good to very good energy compaction for highly
correlated images

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 The Haar Functions are defined on a continuous interval,
X € (0, 1) and for k = 0 to N -1, where N = 2n
 The integer k is given by K = 2p + q - 1
where, 0 ≤ p ≤ n – 1
q = 0, 1 for p = 0 & 1 ≤ q ≤ 2p for p ≠ 0
 The Haar Function is defined as
H0(x) = h0, 0(x) = (1/N)½ , x € [0, 1]

Hk(x) = hp, q(x) = (1/N)½, 2p/2 (q – 1)/2p ≤ x ≤ (q – 1/2)/2p

- 2p/2 (q – 1/2)/2p ≤ x ≤ (q)/2p
0 Otherwise for x € [0, 1]
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Properties
1.The Haar Transform is real and orthogonal
For Real
For Orthogonal
2.The Haar Transform is a fast transform
3.The basis vectors of Haar Transform are sequency ordered
4.The Cosine Transform has an poor energy compaction for
images On an N X 1 vector, it can be implemented on O(N)
operations

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 The N X N Slant Transform matrix is defined by
1 0 1 0
0 0 Sn-1 0

an b n -an bn

Sn = (1/2)½ 0 I(N/2)-2 0 I(N/2)-2

0 1 0 -1
0 0 0 Sn-1

-bn an bn an

0 I(N/2)-2 0 -I(N/2)-2

Where, N = 2n
I – Identity Matrix
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Properties
1.The Slant Transform is real and orthogonal
For Real
For Orthogonal
2.The Slant Transform is a fast transform which can be
implemented in O(N*log2N) operations on an N X 1 vector
3.It is very good to excellent energy compaction for images.
4.The basis vectors of Slant Transform are not sequency
ordered for n ≥ 3

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Walsh

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Wavelet

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Hotelling

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