ACADEMIC STYLE.

COMPONENTS OF
ACADEMIC STYLE.
AVOIDING REPETITION AND
REDUNDANCY.
VISUAL INFORMATION.
NUMBERS IN ACADEMIC
WRITING.
 ACADEMIC STYLE
Academic style is often associated with academic writing.

Formal, objective and cautious language are features

common to almost all academic writing.

There is no one correct style of academic writing, and

students should aim to develop their own ‘voice’.

Although there is much debate over ‘what exactly academic

style is’, generally there is an agreement among tutors to
the key elements that should or should not be included. 
 COMPONENTS OF ACADEMIC STYLE.
GUIDELINES
There are no rules for academic style that apply to all situations.
The following are guidelines that should help you develop a style of your own.

 Do not use idiomatic or colloquial vocabulary: kids, boss.

Instead use standard English: children, manager.

 Use vocabulary accurately.

There is a difference between rule and law, or weather and climate, which you
are expected to know if you study these subjects.

 Be as precise as possible when dealing with facts or figures.

Avoid phrases such as about a hundred or hundreds of years ago.
If it is necessary to estimate numbers use approximately rather than
about.

 Do not contract verb forms: don’t, can’t.

Use the full form: Do not, cannot.
 Conclusions should use tentative language.
Avoid absolute statements such as unemployment causes crime.
Instead use cautious phrases: unemployment may cause crime or tends to
cause crime.

 Avoid adverbs that show your personal attitude: luckily, remarkably,

surprisingly.

 Avoid the following:

• like for introducing examples. • little / big.
Use such as or for instance. Use small / large.

• thing and combinations nothing or • ‘get ’ phrases such as get better /

something. worse.
Use factor, issue or topic. Use improve and deteriorate.

• lots of. • good / bad are simplistic.

Use significant / considerable Use positive / negative, e.g. the
number. changes had several positive
aspects.
 Although academic English tends to use the passive more than standard
English, it should not be over-used.

 Do not use question forms such as Why did war break out in 1914?
Instead use statements: There were three reasons for the outbreak of war .
..

 Avoid numbering sections of your text, except in reports and long essays.
Use conjunctions and signposting expressions to introduce new sections:
Turning to the question of detecting cancer . . .

 When writing lists, avoid using etc. or and so on.

Insert and before the last item:
The main products were pharmaceuticals, electronic goods and
confectionery.

 Avoid using two-word verbs such as go on or bring up if there is a suitable

synonym.
Use continue or raise.
 AVOIDING REPETITION AND
REDUNDANCY
Repetition means repeating a word instead of using a synonym to provide variety,
which makes the text more interesting.

So instead of:
Most family businesses employ less than ten people. These businesses . . .
Use:
Most family businesses employ less than ten people. These firms . . .

Redundancy, i.e. repeating an idea or including an irrelevant point, suggests that

the writer is not fully in control of the material.

It gives the impression that either he does not properly understand the language or
is trying to ‘pad’ the essay by repeating the same point.

Avoid phrases such as:

Homelessness is a global problem in the whole world.
Good writing aims for economy and precision:
Homelessness is a global problem.
 VARYING SENTENCE LENGTH
Short sentences are clear and easy to read:
Car scrappage schemes have been introduced in many countries .

But too many short sentences are monotonous:

Car scrappage schemes have been introduced in many countries. They offer a
subsidy to buyers of new cars. The buyers must scrap an old vehicle. The schemes
are designed to stimulate the economy. They also increase fuel efficiency.

Long sentences are more interesting but can be difficult to construct and read:
Car scrappage schemes, which offer a subsidy to buyers of new cars, who must
scrap an old vehicle, have been introduced in many countries; the schemes are
designed to stimulate the economy and also increase fuel efficiency.

Effective writing normally uses a mixture of long and short sentences, often
using a short sentence to introduce the topic:
Car scrappage schemes have been introduced in many countries. They offer a
subsidy to buyers of new cars, who must scrap an old vehicle. The schemes are
designed to stimulate the economy and also increase fuel efficiency.
 VISUAL INFORMATION
In many assignments it is essential to support your arguments with statistics. Visual
devices such as graphs and tables are a convenient way of displaying large
quantities of information in a form that is easy to understand.

pie
diagram
chart

bar
table
chart

line
map
graph
 DESCRIBING VISUALS
Although visuals do largely speak for themselves, it is common to help
the reader interpret them by briefly commenting on their main features.
graph shows the changes in the price of oil since 1990
The map illustrates the main sources of copper in Africa
diagram displays the organisation of both companies

LABELLING
• When referring to visual information in the text, the word ‘figure’ is used for
almost everything (such as maps, charts and graphs) except tables (see
examples above).

• Figures and tables should be numbered and given a title. Titles of tables are
written above, while titles of figures are written below the data.
•
• As with other data, sources must be given for all visual information.

• If you are writing a lengthy work such as a dissertation you will need to provide
lists of tables and figures, showing numbers, titles and page numbers after the
contents page.
 NUMBERS. THE LANGUAGE OF
NUMBERS
 In introductions numbers are often used to give an accurate account of a
situation:
Approximately 1800 children between the ages of five and 12 years were
randomly selected . . .
The earth’s atmosphere appears to be gaining 3.3 billion metric tons of
carbon annually . . .
. . . but five winters in the twentieth century were more than 2.4°C colder
than average

 Figures and numbers are both used to talk about statistical data in a general
sense:
The figures/ numbers in the report need to be read critically.

 But number is used more widely:

13 is an unlucky number.
She forgot her phone number.
 Digits are individual numbers.
4,539 – a four digit number.
Both fractions (1/2) and decimals (0.975) may be used.

 There is no final ‘s’ on hundred/ thousand/ million used with whole numbers:
Six million people live there.
but:
Thousands of people were forced to move from the area.

 When writing about currencies write $440 m. (440 million dollars).

 Rates are normally expressed as percentages (e.g. the literacy rate rose to 75%)
but may also be per thousand (e.g. the Austrian birth rate is 8.7).

 It is normal to write whole numbers as words from one to ten and as digits above
ten:
Five people normally work in the café, but at peak times this can rise to 14.
 PERCENTAGES
These are commonly used for expressing degrees of change:
Since 2008 the number of prisoners has risen by 22 per cent.

SIMPLIFICATION
Although the accurate use of numbers is vital, too many statistics can make texts
difficult to read.

If the actual number is not important, words such as various, dozens or scores
may be used instead:
The snowstorm closed 47 schools.  The snowstorm closed dozens of
schools.
few less than expected
a few approximately 3–6 depending on context
several approximately 3–4
various approximately 4–6
dozens of approximately 30–60
scores of approximately 60–100
 FURTHER NUMERICAL PHRASES
The expressions listed below can also be used to present and simplify statistical
information.
For example: The course fees rose from $1,200 to $2,500 in two years.
could be written: The course fees doubled in two years.
If appropriate, roughly/ approximately can be added: The course fees roughly doubled
in two years.
one in three one in three engineering students is from China
twice/ three times as many twice as many women as men study business law
a five/ tenfold increase there was a fivefold increase in the price of oil
to double/ halve the rate of infection halved after 2001
the highest/ lowest the lowest rate of home ownership was in Germany
a quarter/ fifth a fifth of all employees leave every year
the majority/ minority the majority of births are in hospital
on average, the average on average, each judge hears two cases per day
a small/ large proportion the website generates a large proportion of their sales

*
5–20 per cent = a tiny/ small minority 51–55 per cent = a small majority
21–39 per cent = a minority 56–79 per cent = a majority
40–49 per cent = a substantial/ significant minority 80 per cent + = a large majority