INHERITANCE How genetics are passed from

one generation to the next.

 Most statements in this chapter are
BACKGROUN made in the context of human (or pea
plant) genetics.
D INFO However, the broad principles can be
applied to the genetics of all organisms.
When last we left
our zygote, it had just
received 23 chromosomes
from mum and 23 from
dad.
These are the pairs. Notice
anything?
HOMOLOGOUS CHR
OMOSOMES
Homologous chromosomes are a pair of chromosomes, one
from the mother and one from the father.
Homologous chromosomes are identical in size and shape.
They also have the same genes in the same loci (locations on
the chromosome). And hence, the similar banding visible in
the previous slide.
Except for the X and the Y chromosome, all the others can
be neatly paired into 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes.
Note – homologous chromosomes are not the same as the
four-armed chromosome (pair of sister chromatids) you saw
in the mitosis chapter.
ZOOMING IN
Say the gene for eye colour was located on
this pair of chromosomes.
Each chromosome will have one allele (one
maternal and one paternal).
So, each person has two alleles for eye
colour.
The final eye colour is a result of the
interaction between both these alleles.
Of course, real life is not nearly as simple.
The father of genetics
GREGOR
MENDEL
Gregor Mendel, known as the "father of modern
genetics", was an Austrian monk who discovered
the basic principles of heredity through
experiments in his monastery's garden. 
Mendel's observations became the foundation of
modern genetics and the study of heredity, and he
is widely considered a pioneer in the field of
genetics.
Mendel chose to use peas for his experiments due
to their many distinct varieties, and because
offspring could be quickly and easily produced. 
Mendel’s research continued over as many as
eight years (between 1856 and 1863) and
involved tens of thousands of individual plants.
PUNNETT
SQUARES
A Punnett square is a graphical
representation of the possible genotypes of
an offspring arising from a particular cross
or breeding event.
You will be using these extensively in this
chapter.
 EVERYTHI
NG FROM
HERE ON
IS FOR THE
EXAM
 Note – All examples refer to the genes in a pea plant.
o Gene – a segment of DNA that controls a
particular characteristic
o Allele – an alternative form of a gene 
E.g., Gene: height of pea plant; Alleles: tall (T) and

TERMINO dwarf (t)

o Phenotype – the observable characteristic of an
LOGY Organism 
E.g., tall or dwarf, red flower or white flower
o Genotype – the alleles present in the genetic
code. The genetic constitution of the organism
(genotype) controls the expression of observable
characteristics (phenotype). 
E.g., tall = TT or Tt, dwarf = tt
 o Heterozygous condition – When the pair of
alleles for a particular gene are different from
each other.
E.g., Tt,      Aa

TERMINO o Homozygous condition – When the pair of alleles

for a particular gene are the same as each other. 
LOGY E.g., TT or tt,  aa or AA
o Dominant allele – An allele that has an effect on
CONTINU the phenotype both in homozygous and
heterozygous states. 
ED E.g. The allele for the tall form (T) is the dominant
allele. 
o Recessive allele – an allele that has an effect on
the phenotype only in the homozygous state. 
E.g. The allele for the dwarf form (t) is the recessive
allele. 
THE PEA PLANT,
USED BY
GREGOR
MENDEL, HAS
MANY
CONTRASTING
CHARACTERIST
ICS
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
PEA PLANT
Gene Alleles Dominant allele (important) Possible genotypes

1. Length of plant Tall (T) and dwarf (t) Tall TT, Tt, tt

2. Shape of seed Round (R) and wrinkled (r) Round RR, Rr, rr

3. Colour of seed Yellow (Y) and green (y) Yellow YY, Yy, yy

4. Colour of flower Purple (P) and white (p) Purple PP, Pp, pp

5. Position of flower Axial (A) and terminal (a) Axial AA, Aa aa

TEMPLATE FOR GENETIC
DIAGRAMS
1. Parental Phenotype:
2. Parental Genotype:
3. Gametes:
4. Punnett Square:
5. Offspring genotype:
6. Offspring phenotype:

7. Concluding statement: (If a specific question is asked) 

Ties the cross back to the original question asked
 CONCEPT 1:
DOMINANT AND
RECESSIVE
Example 1: Cross a pure breeding (homozygous) tall
plant with a pure breeding dwarf plant. (Alleles: T, t)
1. Phenotype: Tall x dwarf
2. Genotype: TT x tt
3. Gametes: T T t t

4. Punnett Square:
T T
t Tt Tt
t Tt Tt

5. Offspring genotype: 4 Tt
6. Offspring phenotype: All tall / 100% tall

Note – This generation is called the F1 generation

Example 2: Cross a heterozygous tall with a dwarf

1. Phenotype: Tall x dwarf

2. Genotype: Tt x tt
3. Gametes: T t t t

4. Punnett Square: T t
t Tt tt
t Tt tt

5. Offspring genotype: 2 Tt : 2 tt

6. Offspring phenotype: 50% tall and 50% dwarf
Example 3: Cross a heterozygous tall with another
heterozygous tall
1. Phenotype: Tall x tall
2. Genotype: Tt x Tt
3. Gametes: T t T t

4. Punnett Square:
T t
T TT Tt
t Tt tt

5. Offspring genotype: 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt
6. Offspring phenotype: 75% tall and 25% dwarf
Example 4: Cross a pure breeding (homozygous)
round seeds plant with a pure breeding wrinkled
seeds plant. (Alleles: R, r)
1. Phenotype:
2. Genotype:
3. Gametes:
4. Punnett Square:
5. Offspring genotype:
6. Offspring phenotype:
Example 4: Cross a pure breeding (homozygous)
round seeds plant with a pure breeding wrinkled
seeds plant. (Alleles: R, r)
1. Phenotype: round x wrinkled
2. Genotype: RR x rr
3. Gametes: R R r r

4. Punnett Square:
R R
r Rr Rr
r Rr Rr

5. Offspring genotype: 4 round

6. Offspring phenotype: 100% round
Example 5: Cross a heterozygous round seeds
plant with a wrinkled seeds plant

1. Phenotype:
2. Genotype:
3. Gametes:
4. Punnett Square:
5. Offspring genotype:
6. Offspring phenotype:
Example 5: Cross a heterozygous round seeds
plant with a wrinkled seeds plant
1. Phenotype: round x wrinkled
2. Genotype: Rr x rr
3. Gametes: R r r r

4. Punnett Square: R r
r Rr rr
r Rr rr

5. Offspring genotype: 2 Rr : 2 rr

6. Offspring phenotype: 50% round and 50% wrinkled
Example 6: Cross two heterozygous round seeds
plants

1. Phenotype:
2. Genotype:
3. Gametes:
4. Punnett Square:
5. Offspring genotype:
6. Offspring phenotype:
Example 6: Cross two heterozygous round seeds
plants
1. Phenotype: round x round
2. Genotype: Rr x Rr
3. Gametes: R r R r

4. Punnett Square:
R r
R RR Rr
r Rr rr

5. Offspring genotype: 1 RR: 2 Rr : 1 rr

6. Offspring phenotype: 75% round and 25% wrinkled
Example 7: Try this on your own

a) Pure breeding axial x pure breeding terminal

b) Heterozygous axial x terminal
c) Heterozygous axial x heterozygous axial

(Alleles - axial: A, terminal: a)

A) pure breeding axial x pure breeding terminal
1. Phenotype: axial x terminal
2. Genotype: AA x aa
3. Gametes:  A A a a
4. Punnett Square:
A A
a Aa Aa
a Aa Aa

5. Offspring genotype: 4 Aa
6. Offspring phenotype: 100% axial
B) heterozygous axial x terminal
1. Phenotype: axial x terminal
2. Genotype: Aa x aa
3. Gametes: A a a a
4. Punnett Square:
A a
a Aa aa
a Aa aa

5. Offspring genotype: 2 Aa : 2 aa
6. Offspring phenotype: 50% axial and 50% terminal
C) heterozygous axial x heterozygous axial

1. Phenotype: axial x axial
2. Genotype: Aa x Aa
3. Gametes: A a A a
4. Punnett Square:
A a
A AA Aa
a Aa aa

5. Offspring genotype: 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa
6. Offspring phenotype: 75% axial and 25% terminal
RATIOS
Phenotype
Phenotype Tall
Dwarf
Cross between  (phenotype of
(phenotype of
dominant allele) 
recessive allele) 
For genes that follow TT x tt 
dominant and recessive homozygous dominant x
Tt
- 
100% 
inheritance pattern, (homozygous) recessive
the ratios obtained for
Tt x tt 
genetic crosses are: heterozygous dominant x
Tt tt
50%  50% 
(homozygous) recessive

Tt x Tt
1TT, 2Tt tt
heterozygous dominant
75%  25% 
x heterozygous dominant
Example 8:
Two tall pea plants were crossed and the phenotypes of the 120 offspring obtained
were as follows:
Tall plant = 90
Dwarf plant = 30
Observe the ratios of the plants and identify the genotype of the parents. Show your
cross.
Answer:
1. Phenotype: Tall x tall
2. Genotype: Tt x Tt
3. Gametes: T t T t

4. Punnett Square: T t
T TT Tt
t Tt tt

5. Offspring genotype: 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt
6. Offspring phenotype: 75% tall and 25% dwarf
7. Concluding statement: As shown by the cross above, both parent plants must
have been heterozygous tall plants.
Example 9:
A yellow seed allele in a plant is dominant over green seed allele. If a yellow seed
plant is crossed with a green seed plant and half of the next generation is
green; identify the genotype of the parents. Show your cross. (Alleles: Y, y)
Answer:
1. Phenotype: yellow x green
2. Genotype: Yy x yy
3. Gametes: Y r y y

4. Punnett Square: Y y
y Yy yy
y Yy yy

5. Offspring genotype: 2 Yy : 2 yy

6. Offspring phenotype: 50% yellow and 50% green
7. Concluding statement: As shown by the cross above, one parent must have been
heterozygous yellow and the other, homozygous green.
CONCEPT 2: CO-
DOMINANCE
Codominant alleles
Define codominance: Codominant alleles are two alleles that will both have an effect
on the phenotype even in the heterozygous state. 
There will be a third phenotype whose characteristics will be intermediate to the other two.

For example: Flower colour in Mirabilis jalapa
The gene coding for the colour of the flower has two alleles: red and white. Let CR denote
the red allele and CW denote the white allele.
CR CR  = Red
CW CW  = White
CR CW (or CW CR) = Pink
Example 1: Cross red and white
flower plants
1. Phenotype: red x white
2. Genotype: CR CR x CW CW
3. Gametes:
CR CR CW CW
4. Punnett Square:
CR CR
CW CR C W CR CW
CW CR CW CR CW

5. Offspring genotype: 4 CR CW

6. Offspring phenotype: 100% pink
Example 2: Cross two pink flower
plants
1. Phenotype: pink x pink
2. Genotype: CR CW x CR CW
3. Gametes:
CR CW CR CW

4. Punnett Square: CR CW
CR C R CR CR CW
CW CR CW CW CW

5. Offspring genotype: 1 CR CR : 2 CR CW : 1 CW CW
6. Offspring phenotype: 25% red, 50% pink, 25% white
Example 3:
In Guinea pigs, hair length is controlled by a pair of genes. When long-haired
Guinea pigs were crossed with short-haired Guinea pigs, the offspring all had
medium length hair (alleles – long: HL, short: HS). Show the cross.
Answer
1. Phenotype: long hair x short hair
2. Genotype: HL HL x HS HS
3. Gametes:
HL HL HS HS

4. Punnett Square:
HL HL
HS HL HS HL HS
HS HL HS HL HS

5. Offspring genotype: 4 HL HS
6. Offspring phenotype: 100% medium length hair
7. Concluding statement: As shown by the cross above, if one parent is homozygous long haired
and the other, homozygous short haired, then all offspirng are heterozygous (medium haired). 
Example 4:
Cross two guinea pigs with medium length hair and show the genotype and
phenotype of the offspring.
Answer
1. Phenotype: medium hair x medium hair
2. Genotype: HL HS x HL HS
3. Gametes:
HL HS HL HS

4. Punnett Square:
HL HS
HL HL HL HL HS
HS HL HS HS HS

5. Offspring genotype: 1 HL HL : 2 HL HS : 1 HS HS
6. Offspring phenotype: 25% long, 50% medium, 25% short
Example 5: Try this on your own
When black Andalusian fowls were crossed with splashed white fowls all the
offspring in the first generation were blue in color. 
A. Let CB be black, and CW be white. Show this cross.
B. Also, cross 2 blue fowls to find the genotype and phenotype of offspring in the
second generation.
A. Let C B be black, and C W  be white. Show this cross.

1. Phenotype: black x white

2. Genotype: CB CB x CW CW
3. Gametes: C C
C B
C B
W W

4. Punnett Square: CB CB
CW C B CW CB CW
CW CB C W CB CW

5. Offspring genotype: 4 CB CW
6. Offspring phenotype: 100% blue
B. Also cross 2 blue fowls to find the genotype and
phenotype of offspring in the second generation.
1. Phenotype: blue x blue
2. Genotype: CB CW x CB CW
3. Gametes:
CB CW CB CW

4. Punnett Square: CB CW
CB CB CB C B CW
CW CB CW C W CW

5. Offspring genotype: 1 CB CB : 2 CB CW : 1 CW CW
6. Offspring phenotype: 25% black, 50% blue, 25% white
CONCEPT 3: MULTIPLE
ALLELES - BLOOD
GROUPS
Blood groups
Blood group in humans is controlled by 1 gene that has three alleles: IA, IB and IO.
IO is recessive to both IA and IB. While IA and IB are codominant.
Therefore, we have four phenotypes: A, B, O, and AB
 All possible crosses
Parent
IA IB IO
Alleles
IA I A IA IB IA IO
I A
(Grp A) (Grp AB) (Grp A)
I I
A B
I I
B B
IB IO
I B
(Grp AB) (Grp B) (Grp B)
I I
A O
I I
B O
IO IO
IO
(Grp A) (Grp B) (Grp O)
Phenotype Possible Underlying Genotypes

Blood Group A IA IA, IA IO

Blood Group B IB IB, IB IO

Blood Group AB IA IB

Blood Group O IO IO
EXAMPLES
 Perform a cross between:

Father with blood group: Mother with blood group:

Example 1 AB AB
Example 2 Heterozygous A Heterozygous B
Example 3 Homozygous A Homozygous B
EXAMPLE 1
1. Phenotype: blood group AB x blood group AB
2. Genotype: IA IB x IA IB
3. Gametes:
4. Punnett Square:
IA IB
IA IA IA IA IB
IB IA IB IB IB

5. Offspring genotype: 1 IA IA : 2 IA IB : 1 IB IB 

6. Offspring phenotype: 25% group A, 50% group AB, 25% group B
EXAMPLE 2
1. Phenotype: blood group A x blood group B
2. Genotype: IA IO x IB IO
3. Gametes:
4. Punnett Square: IA IO
IB IA IB IB IO
IO IA IO IO IO

5. Offspring genotype: 1 IA IB : 1 IB IO : 1 IA IO : 1 IO IO
6. 6.Offspring phenotype: 25% group AB, 25% group B, 25% group A, 25% group O
EXAMPLE 3
1. Phenotype: blood group A x blood group B
2. Genotype: IA IA x IB IB
3. Gametes:
4. Punnett Square:
IA IA
IB IA IB  IA IB  
IB IA IB  IA IB  

5. Offspring genotype: 4 IA IB
6. Offspring phenotype: 100% group AB
 CONCEPT 4: INHERITANCE
OF SEX CHROMOSOMES AND
SEX-LINKED DISEASES
Sex Chromosomes in Humans
Chromosomes number:
1 – 22: autosomes
23rd pair: sex chromosomes

Males: XY
Females: XX
Inheritance of Sex Chromosomes
1. Phenotype: mother x father
2. Genotype: XX x XY
3. Gametes: X X X Y

4. Punnett Square:
X X
X XX XX
Y XY XY

5. Offspring genotype: 2 XX : 2 XY
6. Offspring phenotype: 50% girl : 50% boy
SEX-LINKED DISEASES
Disease 1: Hemophilia
The gene for blood clotting is carried on the X chromosome. The Y chromosome
does not have this gene.
Hemophilia is a recessive disease. (X linked recessive disease)
Let us denote the normal gene as XH, and the hemophilia gene as Xh.
1. Females can be normal - XH XH
2. Females can be hemophilic - Xh Xh
3. Females can also be carriers - XH Xh (in the heterozygous condition). They are
normal phenotypically.
4. Males can either be hemophilic Xh Y or normal XH Y.
To draw:
Example 1: Cross a normal female with a hemophilic
male
1. Phenotype: normal female x hemophilic male
2. Genotype: XHXH x XhY
3. Gametes: XH XH Xh Y

4. Punnett Square: XH XH
Xh XHXh XHXh
Y X HY XHY

5. Offspring genotype: 2 XHXh : 2 XHY

6. Offspring phenotype: 2 normal (carrier) female : 2 normal male
1 : 1 or 50% : 50%
Example 2: Cross a carrier female with a hemophilic male
1. Phenotype: carrier female x hemophilic male
2. Genotype: XHXh  x XhY
3. Gametes:
XH Xh Xh Y
4. Punnett Square:
XH Xh
Xh XHXh XhXh
Y XHY Xh Y

5. Offspring genotype: 1 XHXh : 1 XhXh : 1 XHY : 1 XhY

6. Offspring phenotype: 1 normal (carrier) female : 1 hemophilic female : 1 normal male : 1
hemophilic male
1:1:1:1
What is the probability of this couple having a hemophilic child?  Answer: 50% (XhXh  XhY)
Disease 2: Color blindness
The gene for color blindness is carried on the X chromosome.
Color blindness is also a recessive disease. (X linked recessive disease)
Let us denote the normal gene as XB, and the color blindness gene as Xb.
 Example 1: Cross a normal female with
a colorblind male
1. Phenotype: normal female x colorblind male
2. Genotype: XB XB x Xb Y
3. Gametes:
XB XB Xb Y

4. Punnett Square: XB XB
Xb XBXb XBXb
Y XBY XBY

5. Offspring genotype: 2 XBXb : 2 XBY

6. Offspring phenotype: 2 phenotypically normal (carrier) female : 2 normal male
1 : 1 or 50% : 50%
Example 2: Cross a carrier female with a colorblind male
1. Phenotype: carrier female x colorblind male
2. Genotype: XBXb x XbY
3. Gametes:
XB Xb Xb Y

4. Punnett Square: XB Xb
Xb XBXb XbXb
Y XBY XbY

5. Offspring genotype:1 XBXb : 1 XbXb : 1 XBY : 1 XbY

6. Offspring phenotype: 1 normal (carrier) female : 1 colorblind female : 1 normal
male : 1 colorblind male
HOMEWORK:
Question 1
A couple has a hemophiliac son. If the mother is normal and the father is
hemophilic, explain how you can obtain these results. Show your cross.
Answer
1. Phenotype: carrier female x hemophilic male
2. Genotype: XHXh  x XhY
3. Gametes:
XH Xh Xh Y

4. Punnett Square: XH Xh
Xh XHXh XhXh
Y XHY Xh Y

5. Offspring genotype: 1 XHXh : 1 XhXh : 1 XHY : 1 XhY

6. Offspring phenotype: 1 normal (carrier) female : 1 hemophilic female : 1 normal male
: 1 hemophilic male
7. Concluding statement: Therefore, a 25% probability of having hemophilic son, if the
mother is a carrier woman.
Question 2
A colorblind woman and a normal man have a child. what is the probability of their
children being normal? Show your cross.
Answer
1. Phenotype:  colorblind female x normal male
2. Genotype: XbXb x XBY
3. Gametes:
Xb Xb XB Y

4. Punnett Square: Xb Xb
XB XBXb XBXb
Y XbY XbY

5. Offspring genotype: 2 XBXb : 2 XbY

6. Offspring phenotype: 2 normal (carrier) female : 2 color blind male
7. Concluding statement: Therefore, there is a 50% chance of their children being
normal. All daughters will be carrier females.