Sub-Topic Digestion in Mammals: by Michael O. Nyaongo (BSC - Ed, MD)

SUB-TOPIC
DIGESTION IN MAMMALS
By
MICHAEL O. NYAONGO(Bsc.ed, MD)
MICHAEL NYAONGO 04/03/2023 1

Digestion in Mammals
By the end of this sub-topic you should be able to:
 Describe the structure of epithelial tissues, glandular
tissues and relate them to their digestive roles.
 Identify types and sources of digestive juices
 Explain the composition of digestive juices
 Explain the sensory and/or hormonal control of the
secretion of the digestive juices

Important Terminologies
Digestive System:
 The digestive system includes the
organs that digest and absorb food
substances, and eliminate the
unused residuals.
 The digestive system consists of
the alimentary canal and
several accessory organs.
i. Alimentary canal, or the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract, is
the continuous muscular
digestive tube that winds through
the body digesting and absorbing
foodstuff; its organs include: the
mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, and
large intestine.

2. The accessory digestive organs aid digestion physically and
produce secretions that break down foodstuff in the GI tract;
the organs involved are the teeth, tongue, gallbladder, salivary
glands, liver, and pancreas.
 To achieve the goal of providing energy and nutrients to
the body, six major functions take place in the digestive
system:
1. INGESTION
 Ingestion is the process of taking in solid food into the
gut or alimentary canal or GI.
 Ingestion is the simple act of putting food into the
mouth.
2. Secretion
Secretion is the production and release of a useful
substance by a gland or cell. E.g. enzymes and
hormonees
The digestive system secretes around 7 liters of fluids.
These fluids include saliva, mucus, hydrochloric acid,
enzymes, and bile.
3. Mixing and Movement
The digestive system uses 3 main processes to move
and mix food:

i. Swallowing. Swallowing is the
process of using smooth and
skeletal muscles in the mouth,
tongue, and pharynx to push food
out of the mouth, through the
pharynx, and into the esophagus.
ii. Peristalsis. Peristalsis is a muscular
wave that travels the length of the
GI tract, moving partially digested
food a short distance down the
tract. It takes many waves of
peristalsis for food to travel from
the esophagus, through the
stomach and intestines, and reach
the end of the GI tract.

iii. Segmentation.
Segmentation occurs only
in the small intestine as
short segments of intestine
contract like hands
squeezing a toothpaste
tube. Segmentation helps
to increase the absorption
of nutrients by mixing
food and increasing its
contact with the walls of
the intestine.
4. Digestion
Digestion is the process of breaking down large
insoluble biological molecules of ingested food into
smaller soluble molecules or compounds. E.g.
polysacchariides are broken down into
monosaccharides, proteins into amino acids, fats into
glycerol and fatty acids
Digestion involves both mechanical and chemical
processes.

1. Mechanical digestion occurs when food is chewed,
swallowed, and propelled by a wave-like motion called
peristalsis.
2. Chemical digestion consists of changing the various
food substances, with the aid of digestive enzymes,
into solutions and simple compounds. Carbohydrates
(starches and sugars) change into simple sugars
(glucose); fats change into fatty acids; and proteins
change into amino acids.

5. Absorption: is the process of taking up digested products across the
lining of the gut into the blood stream and lymp.
Once food has been reduced to its building blocks, it is ready for the
body to absorb.
Absorption begins in the stomach with simple molecules like water
and alcohol being absorbed directly into the bloodstream.
Most absorption takes place in the walls of the small intestine, which
are densely folded to maximize the surface area in contact with
digested food.
Small blood and lymphatic vessels in the intestinal wall pick up the
molecules and carry them to the rest of the body.
The large intestine is also involved in the absorption of water and
vitamins B and K before feces leave the body.

Assimilation
The absorption of nutrients in
to the body after digestion in
the intestine and its
transformation in biological
tissues and fluids
6. Egestion/Elimination
This is the process of
eliminating undigested food
material from the gut through
the anus.
It is also known as defecation

Major tissues of the Alimentary Canal
The walls of the alimentary canal are almost lined up
by epithelial tissues.
The types of epithelium tissues lining the walls of the
alimentary canal are:
 Simple epithelium tissues
 Glandular epithelium tissues

LAYERS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL
The walls of the alimentary canal have the
same four basic layers, (also known as
tunics) —
 the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa,
and serosa.
Each layer contains a certain tissue type that
plays a crucial role in the breakdown of food.
1. The MUCOSA
The innermost layer of tissue.
It’s a moist epithilial membrane that lines
the alimentary canal lumen from mouth to
the anus.
The mucosa has three major functions:
 Secrete mucus, digestive enzymes, and
hormones
 Absorb the end products of digestion into the
blood
 Protect against infectious disease

Digestive mucosa is made up of
three sublayers: (i) a lining
epithelium, (ii) a lamina propria,
and (iii) a musclularis mucosae
i. The epithelium of mucosa is
a simple columnar
epithelium rich in mucus-
secreting cells.
 The mucus it produces protects
certain digestive organs from
being digested by enzymes
working within the same cavity, it
also eases food passage along the
GI tract.

ii. The lamina propria, which underlies the epithelium,
is loose areolar connective tissue. Its capillaries
nourish the epithelium and absorb digested nutrients.
Its isolated lymphoid follicles (which are a part
of MALT, mucosa associated lymphoid tissue) help
defend against bacteria and other pathogens, which
have free access to our digestive tract. Large collections
of lymphoid follicles occur in the pharynx (tonsils)
and appendix.

iii. The muscularis mucosae, a layer of smooth muscle
cells that produces local movements of mucosa.
In the small intestine, this muscle layer’s tone throws
the mucosa into a series of small folds that largely
increases its surface area.

2. Submucosa is a moderately dense connective tissue
layer containing blood and lymphatic vessels,
lymphoid follicles, and nerve fibers.
Contains the submucosal nerve plexus of Meissner,
one of the 2 major intrinsic nerve plexuxes, which
regulates glands and muscle of the muscularis
mucosae.

3. Muscularis externa typically consists of smooth muscle
and is responsible for peristalsis and segmentation.
Contains the myenteric plexus of Auerbach, the other
major intrinsic nerve plexus. Located between the two
layers of smooth muscle, controls motility of the G.I. tract.
4. Serosa, the protective outer layer of the intraperitoneal
organs, is the visceral peritoneum
its made up of areolar connective tissue covered
with mesothelium, a single layer of squamous epithelial
cells.

EPITHELIAL TISSUES
Epithelial tissue, commonly
called epithelium, occurs as
sheets of closely packed cells
that cover body surfaces and
line internal organs
It is made up of cells closely
packed and arranged in one
or more layers.
This tissue is specialised to
form the covering or lining
of all internal and external
body surfaces.

TWO FORMS EPITHELIAL TISSUES IN
HUMAN BODY
Two forms occur in the human body:
 Covering and lining epithelium– forms the outer layer of
the skin; lines open cavities of the digestive and respiratory
systems; covers the walls of organs of the closed ventral
body cavity.
 Glandular epithelium– surrounds glands within the body.
Epithelial tissue is usually separated from the underlying
tissue by a thin sheet of connective tissue; basement
membrane.
 The basement membrane provides structural support for
the epithelium and also binds it to neighbouring
structures.
Characteristics of epithelium
i.Polarity–
 all epithelia have an apical surface and a lower
attached basal surface that differ in structure and
function
 Most apical surfaces have microvilli (small
extensions of the plasma membrane) that increase
surface area. For instance, in epithelia that absorb or
secrete substances, the microvilli are extremely
dense giving the cells a fuzzy appearance called a
brush border

2. Specialized contacts– epithelial cells fit close
together and form continuous sheets (except in the
case of glandular epithelia).
They do this with tight junctions and desmosomes.
Tight junctions form the closest contact between cells
and help keep proteins in the apical region of the
plasma membrane.
Desmosomes connect the plasma membrane to
intermediate filaments in the cytoplasm.

3. Supported by connective tissue– all epithelia are
supported by connective tissue. For instance, deep to
the basal lamina is reticular lamina (extracellular
material containing collagen protein fiber) which
forms the basement membrane. The basement
membrane reinforces the epithelium and helps it resist
stretching and tearing.
4. Avascular and innervated– even though epithelium
is avascular (contains no blood vessels), it’s still
innervated (supplied by nerve fibers).

5. Regeneration– epithelium have a high regenerative
capacity and can reproduce rapidly as long as they
receive adequate nutrition.

Types of epithelial Tissues
Epithelial tissue can be
divided into two groups
depending on the number of
layers of which it is composes.
i. Epithelial tissue which is
only one cell thick is
known as simple
epithelium.
ii. Epithelial tissue which is
two or more cells thick
such as the skin, it is known
as Transitional and
stratified epithelium.
1. Simple epithelium
Simple epithelium can be subdivided
according to the shape and function of
its cells.
i. Squamous (pavement) epithelium.
Squamous cells have the appearance of
thin, flat plates.
The shape of the nucleus usually
corresponds to the cell form and help to
identify the type of epithelium.
Squamous cells, for example, tend to
have horizontall flattened, elliptical
nuclei because of the thin flattened
form of the cell.
They form the lining of cavities such as
the mouth, blood vessels, heart,
Bowman’s capsule and lungs and make
up the outer layers of the skin.

2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium.
 It is made up of cuboidal cells
which are roughly square or
cuboidal in shape.
Each cell has a spherical nucleus
in the centre.
Cuboidal epithelium is found lining
salivary glands, sweat galnd,
thyroid gland and in the lining of
the kidney tubules as well as in the
ducts of the glands.
They also constitute the germinal
epithelium which produces the
egg cells in the female ovary and
the sperm cells in the male testes.

3. Simple Columnar Epithelium
Columnar epithelial cells occur in one or
more layers.
The cells are elongated and column-
shaped.
The nuclei are elongated and are usually
located near the base of the cells.
Columnar epithelium forms the lining of
the stomach and intestines.
Some columnar cells are specialised for
sensory reception such as in the nose,
ears and the taste buds of the tongue.
Goblet cells (unicellular glands) are found
between the columnar epithelial cells of
the duodenum.
They secrete mucus or slime, a lubricating
substance which keeps the surface smooth.

4.Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
These are simple columnar epithelial
cells, but in addition, they posses fine
hair-like outgrowths, cilia on their free
surfaces.
These cilia are capable of rapid, rhythmic,
wavelike beatings in a certain direction.
This movement of the cilia in a certain
direction causes the mucus, which is
secreted by the goblet cells, to move (flow
or stream) in that direction.
Ciliated epithelium is usually found in the
air passages like the nose.
It is also found in the uterus and
Fallopian tubes of females. The
movement of the cilia propel the ovum to
the uterus.

5. Pseudostratified columnar
epithelium–
consists of a falsely-stratified single
layer of epithelial cells resting on a
basement membrane. Many, if not
most, of the cells, are columnar.
The single layer of cells appears
stratified because the cells have
different heights: all the cells rest on
the basement membrane, but all do
not reach the apical surface.
 only the tallest reach the apical
surface.
Most pseudostratified epithelia
contain cilia on their apical surface
and line the respiratory tract.

Two major subtypes of
pseudostratified columnar
epithelia are found in the
animal body:
 Ciliated pseudostratified
columnar epithelium
(Respiratory Epithelium) lines
the upper respiratory tract.

 Nonciliated pseudostratified
columnar epithelium lines the
epididymis of the male
reproductive system.

6. Glandular epithelium
Columnar epithelium with goblet
cells is called glandular
epithelium.
Some parts of the glandular
epithelium consist of such a large
number of goblet cells that there are
only a few normal epithelial cells left.
Columnar and cuboidal epithelial
cells often become specialised as
gland cells which are capable of
synthesising and secreting certain
substances such as enzymes,
hormones, milk, mucus, sweat,
wax and saliva.

Unicellular glands consist of
single, isolated glandular cells
such as the goblet cells.
Sometimes a portion of the
epithelial tissue becomes
invaginated and a
multicellular gland is
formed.
Multicellular glands are
composed of clusters of
cells.
Most glands are multicellular
including the salivary glands.
Multicellular exocrine glands are
structurally classified depending on
the structure of their duct.
 Simple glands– have an
unbranched duct
 Compound glands– have a
branched duct
The glands can be further
categorized by their secretory units
as:
 Tubular– if the secretory cells form
tubes
 Alveolar– if the secretory cells form
small sacs
 Tubuloalveolar– if they have both
tubular and alveolar secretory units

TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
It has about 3 to 4 layers of cell thick
Forms the lining of hollow urinary
organs, which stretch as they fill with
urine.
Cells in the basal layer are cuboidal or
columnar.
Cells by the apical surface vary in
appearance depending if the organ is
stretched at the time.
Transitional cells have the ability to
change their shape which allows more
urine to flow through.
It is found as a lining of the ureters,
urethra, and bladder. The large,
ovoid surface cells are a key attribute of
this epithelium type.

Stratified epithelium
Have more than four layers of cell thick
It is much thicker than the rest type of
tissue
i. Stratified squamous epithelium– is
the most widespread stratified epithelia.
 It’s composed of several layers and is
perfect for its protective role.
 Its apical surface cells are squamous and
cells of the deeper layer are either
cuboidal or columnar.
 Stratified squamous forms the external
part of the skin and extends into every
body opening that’s continuous with the
skin.
 The outer layer of the skin (epidermis)
is keratinized (contains keratin, a
protective protein).

ii. Stratified cuboidal
epithelium
rare in the human body.
It’s mainly found in the
ducts of glands (sweat
glands, mammary
glands) and oesophagus
It typically has two layers
of cuboidal cells

iii. Stratified columnar
epithelium– is also rare in the
human body.
Small amounts are found in
the pharynx, male urethra,
and lining of some glandular
ducts.
It is only two cell layers thick,
Stratified columnar epithelium
occurs in transition areas
(junctions) between other
epithelial types.

Functions of epithelial tissues
Covers and protects all body surfaces, cavities, and
lumina (hollow portions of blood vessels or body tubes)
Absorbs and secretes substances from the digestive tract
Secretes substances from glands
Provides filtration in the kidneys
Forms highly specialized epithelial tissues in the taste
buds and nose
Transports particles contained in mucus away from the
lungs

DIGESTION PROCESSES

DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH
When food enters the mouth, it is cut and chewed by
the teeth into smaller pieces.
The mouth mechanically reduces the size of solid
particles and mixes them with saliva. This process is
called mastication.
Saliva, produced by the salivary gland, moistens food
making it easier to chew.
Saliva also lubricates the food mass to aid swallowing.
The tongue assists with both mastication and
swallowing.

THE SALIVA
Saliva is produced by three pairs of major
and numerous minor salivary glands
located within the tissues in the oral
cavity, such as the lips, buccal mucosa,
dorsal surface of the tongue, and soft
palate.
The major salivary glands produce 93% of
all saliva.
Water comprises 99% of saliva. The
remaining components include
macromolecules, which are secreted by the
ducts into the lumen and formed within
the endoplasmic reticulum of the acinar
cells
Daily saliva output is in the range of 500 to
150 mL, although the average daily volume
of saliva in the oral cavity is only 1 mL.

Composition of saliva
Saliva contains:
i. Water- over 99% of saliva is water
ii. Salivary Amylase- a digestive enzyme which hydolyses

starch to maltose
iii. Mineral salts( e.g. NaHCO3)- this helps to maintain a

pH of around 6.5-7.5, which is the optimum for the
action of salivary amylase
iv. Mucin- a sticky
material which helps to
bind food particles
together and lubricate
them to assist
swallowing
v. Lingual lipase- breaks
down triglycerides

Functions of Saliva
Digestive
 Saliva is alkaline and contains salivary amylase, the
enzyme which digests starch to maltose (sugar)
 It dissolves food material so as it can be sensed by taste
buds
Lubricative
 Moistens food and thus facilitates swallowing
Tasting
 Saliva includes hormones, which are important for
developing taste receptor cells.
Buffers acid gastric secretion
Swallowing and peristalsis
Swallowing moves food from the mouth through the
pharynx into the esophagus and then to the stomach
Step 1: A mass of chewed, moistened food, a bolus, is
moved to the back of the mouth by the tongue
(voluntary). In the pharynx, the bolus triggers an
involuntary swallowing reflex that prevents food from
entering the lungs, and directs the bolus into the
esophagus.
 These movements of the muscles are called peristalsis
which moves the food to the stomach.

Step 2: Muscles in the
esophagus propel the bolus by
waves of involuntary muscular
contractions (peristalsis) of
smooth muscle lining the
esophagus
Step 3: The bolus passes
through the gastroesophageal
sphincter, into the stomach.
Heartburn results from
irritation of the esophagus by
gastric juices that leak
through this sphincter.
DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH
Structure
The stomach is a temporary
storage tank where the
chemical breakdown of
proteins is initiated and
food is converted to chyme.
The stomach is a saccular
enlargement of the
gastrointestinal tube and
lies in the left upper
quadrant of the abdomen

It connects the lower end of the esophagus with the first
portion of the small intestine (the duodenum).
 The stomach is divided into the cardiac, fundic, body, and
pyloric regions.
At each end of the stomach, muscular rings (or sphincters)
form valves to close off the stomach.
 The sphincters prevent the stomach's contents from escaping
in either direction while food substances are being mixed by
peristaltic muscular contractions of the stomach wall.
The sphincter at the esophageal end is the cardiac
sphincter; at the duodenal end it is the pyloric sphincter.

The surface epithelium of the
stomach mucosa is a simple
columnar epithelium
composed of goblet cells, which
produce a protective two-layer
coat of alkaline mucus.
The gastric glands of the
stomach produce gastric juice,
which may be composed of a
combination of mucus,
hydrochloric acid, intrinsic
factor, pepsinogen, and a
variety of hormones.

The principal digestive enzymes produced by the
gastric glands are hydrochloric acid and
pepsinogen.
 Hydrochloric acid activates pepsin from pepsinogen,
kills bacteria that enter the stomach, inhibits the
digestive action of amylase, and helps regulate the
opening and closing of the pyloric sphincter.
 Pepsin is a protein-splitting enzyme capable of
beginning the digestion of nearly all types of dietary
protein.

Chief cells produce pepsinogen and
small amounts of gastric lipase.
Parietal cells produce HCl and
intrinsic factor (required for
absorption of vitamin B12).
Enteroendocrine cells include G-
cells, which produce gastrin,
enterochromaffin-like cells (ECLs),
which produce histamine, and
others that produce somatostatin
and serotonin.
Mucous neck cells produce a thin,
watery, acidic mucus, the purpose of
which is an ongoing area of
investigation.

Composition of Gastric juices
1. Water- solvent and works in
hydrolysis
2. Hydrochloric acid: produced by
parietal cells or oxyntic cells
i. provides a slightly acidic
medium suitable for the action
of the gastric enzymes, i.e.
activates pepsinogen to produce pepsin
and proennin to produce rennin,
ii. kills germs and bacteria that
enters the stomach together with
the food.
iii. inhibits the digestive action of
amylase, and
iv. helps regulate the opening and
closing of the pyloric sphincter.

iii. Pepsinogen: produced by zymogen or chief cells in an
inactive form to prevent it from hydrolysisng the
proteins of the cells producing it.
 It is activated to pepsin by HCL acid.
 Pepsin hydrolyses protein into polypeptides
iv. Prorennin: produced by zymogen cells. It is an inactive
form of rennin. It is activated by Hcl acid
Rennin is an enzyme which coogulates milk by
converting the soluble caseinogen into the insoluble
casein
Rennin is important in young mammals

v. Mucus: produces by goblet
cells.
 It forms a protective layer on
the stomach wall, thus
preventing pepsin and Hcl
acid from digestive the
stomach wall. Lack of mucus
leads to gastric ulcers
 It also lubricate movement
of food within the stomach
so as to allow easy passage
to small intestine


In the stomach food is thoroughly churned and mixed
with gastric juice by periodic contractions of the
muscular stomach wall.
A creamy fluid called chyme is produced
Relaxation of the pyloric sphincter and contraction of
the stomach allow the chyme to pass into the
duodenum.
Digestion in the stomach takes about three hours to
four hours.

Hormonal and Nervous control of the
Gastric juice Secretion
The secretion of gastric juice is
controlled by both nerves and
hormones.
Stimuli in the brain, stomach,
and small intestine activate or
inhibit gastric juice production.
 This is why the three phases of
gastric secretion are called the
cephalic, gastric, and intestinal
phases
 Once gastric secretion begins,
all three phases can occur
simultaneously.

i. The cephalic phase (reflex
phase) of gastric secretion
It is the initial stage and
relatively brief.
Takes place before food
enters the stomach.
The smell, taste, sight, or
thought of food triggers
this phase.
Depression and loss of
appetite can suppress the
cephalic reflex.
Olfactory and taste buds relay inputs to cerebral cortex
and hypothalamus
Hypothalamus stimulates the vagal nuclei of the
medulla oblongata
Motor impulses are transmitted via the vagal nerve to
the enteric ganglia which send neurons out to
stimulate the stomach glands

ii. The gastric phase of secretion
lasts 3 to 4 hours, and
It is set in motion by local
neural and hormonal
mechanisms triggered by the
entry of food into the stomach.
The food creates distention
that activates the stretch
receptors. This stimulates
parasympathetic neurons to
release acetylcholine, which
then provokes increased
secretion of gastric juice.

Partially digested proteins, caffeine, and rising pH
stimulate the release of gastrin from enteroendocrine
G cells, which in turn induces parietal cells to increase
their production of HCl, which is needed to create an
acidic environment for the conversion of pepsinogen
to pepsin, and protein digestion.
Whenever pH levels drop too low, cells in the stomach
react by suspending HCl secretion and increasing
mucous secretions

iii. The intestinal phase of gastric
secretion
It has both excitatory and inhibitory
elements.
Excitatory event - presence of low pH and
partially digested foods in duodenum
stimulates intestinal mucosa cells to
release intestinal (enteric)
gastrin/enterogastrone
Inhibitory event- distension of the
duodenum causes
 enterogastric reflex - inhibition of vagal
nuclei of medulla, inhibition local reflexes,
ativation of sympatheic fibers causing
pyloric shpincter to tighten
 enterogastrone release - release of of
several intestinal hormones which inhibit
gastric secretion

The Mucosal Barrier
The mucosa of the stomach is exposed to the highly

corrosive acidity of gastric juice.
Gastric enzymes that can digest protein can also digest
the stomach itself.
The stomach is protected from self-digestion by
the mucosal barrier.
This barrier has several components
1. The stomach wall is covered by a thick coating of
bicarbonate-rich mucus. This mucus forms a
physical barrier, and its bicarbonate ions neutralize
acid.
2. The epithelial cells of the
stomach’s mucosa meet
at tight junctions, which
block gastric juice from
penetrating the underlying
tissue layers.
3. Stem cells located where
gastric glands join the
gastric pits quickly replace
damaged epithelial mucosal
cells, when the epithelial
cells are shed.
Small intestines and Accessory structures
STRUCTURE:
The small intestine is a muscular, convoluted, coiled
tube, about 7 meters long and attached to the
posterior abdominal wall by its mesentery.
The small intestine is the site of the completion of
digestion and absorption of nutrients.
It extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal
valve where it joins the large intestine.
It receives digestive juices from three accessory organs
of digestion: the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.

It has three subdivisions:
 the duodenum,
 the jejunum, and
 the ileum.
DUODENUM.-
 It is approximately 25 cm long
and forms a C-shaped curve
around the head of the pancreas,
posterior to the liver.
 It is lined with a mucous
membrane that contains small
glands. These glands secrete
intestinal juices containing the
enzymes carbohydrase,
peptidase, and lipase.
JEJUNUM.-
 It is the middle part of the small intestine and is approximately 2.5
meters long.
 Its enzymes continue the digestive process.
ILEUM.-
 The ileum is the last and longest part of the small intestine.
 It is approximately 3.5 meters long.
 Most of the absorption of food occurs in the ileum, where fingerlike
projections (villi) provide a large absorption surface.
 After ingestion, it takes 20 minutes to 2 hours for the first portion of
the food to pass through the small intestine to the beginning of the
large intestine.
Adaptations of small intestines
1. Structural modifications of
the small intestine wall
increase surface area
 plicae circulares, villi, and
microvilli.
 Have Plicae circulares -
The plicae circulares are
circular folds of mucosa
and submucosa that impart
a spiral movement to chyme,
allowing more mixing with
intestinal secretions and
greater absorption.

 Have villi. Villi are finger-
like projections of mucosa
covered with absorptive
columnar cells. The villi
have capillaries and
lacteals in the lamina
propria for nutrient
absorption (most dietary
fat is absorbed by the
lacteals, specialized
lymphatic capillaries).

The presence microvilli.
Microvilli (the brush
border) are projections
from the apical surface of
each epithelial cell which
further increase the
surface area for absorption
and also contain enzymes
(brush border enzymes)
that complete digestion of
nutrients.

2. Intestinal crypts (glands), or the crypts of Lieberkühn,
lie between the villi and secrete intestinal juice that
serves as a carrier fluid for absorbing nutrients from
chyme.
Paneth cells deep in the crypts secrete lysozyme, an
enzyme that degrades bacterial cell walls. The number
of crypts decreases along the length of the small
intestine.

3. The submucosa also contains duodenal glands
(Brunner's glands), which secrete alkaline mucus to
raise the pH and protect the wall of the duodenum.
 Distension or irritation of the mucosa by hypotonic or
acidic chyme stimulates the release of intestinal juice,
around 1 - 2 liters per day.

ACCESSORY ORGANS OF DIGESTION
The accessory organs of digestion include the salivary
glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
The pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are not part of the
GI tract
During the digestive process, the accessory organs
produce secretions that assist the organs of the
alimentary canal.
The digestive juices which operate in the small
intestine come from three main sources: the liver, the
pancreas and the intestinal wall.

Liver
STRUCTURE:
The liver is the largest gland in
the body and has four lobes.
It is located in the upper
abdomen on the right side, just
under the diaphragm and
superior to the duodenum and
pylorus
The liver is composed of liver
lobules, which are made of plates
of liver cells (hepatocytes).
The digestive function of the liver
is to produce bile, which is a fat
emulsifier.
Functions of Liver
It metabolizes carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
preparatory to their use or excretion.
It forms and excretes bile salts and pigment from
bilirubin, a waste product of red blood cell destruction.
It stores blood glycogen; vitamins A, D, and B12; and
iron.
It detoxifies the end products of protein digestion and
drugs.
It produces antibodies and essential elements of the
blood-clotting mechanism- heparin.

The Bile juice
Bile is a yellow-green, alkaline solution containing bile
salts, bile pigments (primarily bilirubin), cholesterol,
neutral fats, phospholipids, and a variety of electrolytes .
It secreted by the liver cells and stored in the gall
bladder
Bile does not usually enter the small intestine until the
gallbladder contracts when stimulated by
cholecystokinin.
Bile is essential for digestion of fat though it does not
contain any digestive enzymes.

Composition of bile juice
1. Mineral salts: e.g. Sodium hydrogen carbonate
 Help to neutralize the acid chyme from the stomach and
so create a more neutral pH for the enzymes of the small
intestine to work in
2. Bile salts –sodium and potasium glycocholate and
taurocholate
1. They emulsify lipids, breaking them down into minute
droplets

Functions of Bile Juice
It stimulates the functions of the proteolytic enzymes and
Amylase.
Emulsifies lipids- It breaks down large fat and oil
molecules into tiny droplets. In this way, the surface area of
the lipids is increased and enzyme action is more efficient.
It coordinates with lipase to convert the fat into fatty acids.
It helps in the absorption of the fatty acids and glycerol.
Helps neutralise chyme in the stomach with its sodium
hydrogen carbonate.
It excretes the pigments biliverdin and bilirubi which are
made from dead red blood cells.
Pancreas
The pancreas is a large, elongated

gland lying posteriorly to the
stomach
The pancreas has two functions:
 It serves both the endocrine system
and the digestive system.
 The digestive portion of the
pancreas produces digestive
juices /Pancreatic juice(amylase,
proteinase, and lipase) that are
secreted through the pancreatic
duct to the duodenum.
 These digestive juices break down
carbohydrates (amylase), proteins
(proteinase), and fats (lipase) into
simpler compounds.

Components of pancreatic juices
1. Water
2. Mineral salts e.g. NaHCO3
 Help neutralize acid chyme from
the stomach
3. Proteases: this include
i. Trypsinogen: when activated by
enterokinase forms the trypsin
which hydrolyses protein into
peptides
ii. Chymotrypsinogen which is
activated by trypsin into
chymotrypsin
iii. Carboxypeptidase converts
peptides into smaller peptides
and some amino acids

4. Pancreatic amylase: completes the digestion of
starch to maltose which began in the mouth
5. Pancreatic Lipase: digestion of fats into fatty acids
and glycerol
6. Nuclease: Converts nucleic acids into their
constituent nucleotides
7. Peptidase: Converts peptides into nucleotides
These enzymes enter and do their digestive work at the
duodenum. They enter the duodenum through
the pancreatic duct.

Intestinal glands
These are formed by modification of surface
epithelium of small intestine. The two main intestinal
glands are Brunner’s gland and Crypts of Lieberkühn.
(i)Brunner’s glands are found only in first few
centimetres of duodenum. They secrete large amount
of alkaline mucus to protect the duodenal wall from
highly acidic gastric juice and to neutralize
hydrochloric acid.
(ii)Crypt of Lieberkühns are small pits located all
over the entire surface of the small intestine, lies
between the intestinal villi.
They are covered by epithelium composed of two types of
cells.
1) Goblet cells: secrete mucus.
2) Enterocytes: secrete water and electrolyte, also reabsorb the
water and electrolyte along with the end product of digestion
over the surface of adjacent villi.
 At the base of these crypts, paneth cells and argentaffin cells are
present.
Paneth cells found mainly in duodenum are rich in zinc and
contain acidophilic granules.
Argentaffin cells synthesize secretin hormone and 5-
hydroxytryptamine.
INTESTINAL JUICE(Succus entericus)
A slightly alkaline liquid containing mucus that is
secreted into the lumen of the small intestine(Ileum)
from the cells that line the crypts of Lieberkühn.
Crypts of Lieberkühn (intestinal glands) is tubular
glands that lie between the finger-like projections of
the inner surface of the small intestine(ileum). The
cells of these glands (called Paneth cells)
secrete intestinal juice as they gradually migrate along
the side of the crypt and the villus; they are eventually
shed into the lumen of the intestine.

Together with pancreatic juice, the intestinal juice
provides an alkaline environment that helps in the
absorption of digested food molecules entering the
small intestine in chyme from the stomach.
It is composed of hormones, digestive
enzymes, mucus, and neutralizing substances released
from the glands and mucous-membrane lining of
the small and large intestines.

Intestinal juice neutralizes hydrochloric acid coming
from the stomach; releases gastrointestinal hormones
into the bloodstream; and contains digestive enzymes
that facilitate the digestion and absorption of food.
Intestinal juice is secreted under the influence of
hormones, the vagus nerve, and mechanical
stimulation produced by the presence of food.

COMPONENTS OF INTESTINAL JUICE
The juice contains the following components:
1. Mucus: helps in lubrication of intestinal walls and
protection against self-digestion
2. Mineral salts(e.g. NaHCO3)- produced by the
Brunner’s gland in the duodenum to neutralise the
acid chyme from the stomach
3. Proteases(Erepsin)- these include the exopeptidase
called aminopeptidase which converts peptides into
smaller peptides and amino acids, and Dipeptidase
which hydrolyses into amino acids

4. Enterokinase: non-digestive enzyme which activates
the trypsinogen produced by the pancrease to trypsin
5. Nucleotidase: Converts nucleotides into pentose
sugars, phosphoric acids and organic bases
6. Carbohydrases: These include
i. Amylase:- completes the digestion of starch to
maltose
ii. Maltase:- hydrolyses maltose to glucose
iii. Lactase:- hydrolyses the milk sugar lactose into
glucose and galactose
iv. Sucrase:- hydrolyses sucrose into glucose and fructose
Hormonal control of pancreatic juice and
intestinal juice secretion
Pancreatic juice
When acidified chyme enters and makes contact with
the duodenum wall, it stimulates the duodenum
mucosa layer to secrete three hormones called secretin,
cholecystokinin (CCK) and enterogastrone which are
released into the blood stream.
 Cholecystokinin: A small intestinal hormone that
stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile.
 Secretin: Another hormone secreted from small
intestinal epithelial cells; stimulates secretion of a
bicarbonate-rich fluids from the pancreas and liver.

Intestinal juice:
Intestinal juice is secreted due to the presence of the
acidic chyme in the walls of the duodenum which
stimulates the duodenum mucosa to release it
Enterogastrone is transported by the bloodstream to
the glands and muscles of the stomach, where it
inhibits gastric movements and secretions by
blocking the production or activity of gastrin, the
hormone that initially causes these functions

The large intestine performs the following functions:
 reabsorbs water and maintains the fluid balance of the body
 absorbs certain vitamins
 processes undigested material (fibre)
 stores waste before it is eliminated.
The large intestine removes water from the waste products of
digestion and returns some of it to the bloodstream.
Fecal matter contains undigested food, bacteria, and cells from the
walls of the digestive tract.
Millions of bacteria in the large intestine help to produce certain B
vitamins and vitamin K.
 These vitamins are absorbed into the bloodstream along with the
water.

Sub-Topic Digestion in Mammals: by Michael O. Nyaongo (BSC - Ed, MD)

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ii. Salivary Amylase- a digestive enzyme which hydolyses

iii. Mineral salts( e.g. NaHCO3)- this helps to maintain a

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The mucosa of the stomach is exposed to the highly

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