CHAPETR IX

SAFETY AND HEALTH PROVISIONS IN

CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
 9.1 Introduction
• Construction industry which is concerned with building
infrastructure is one of the big industries that mobilize large
capital and employs diverse personnel. Yet it is considered by
many as one of the most dangerous activities. The International
Labor Organization (ILO) estimates at least 60,000 fatal accidents
a year on construction sites around the world that is one in six of
all fatal work-related accidents. The global trade union federation
puts the figure much higher at 108,000 with construction
responsible for 30% of all work related accidents. Many more
workers suffer from work related injuries and from occupational
diseases rising from exposure to dangerous substances such as
dust, chemicals, asbestos and etc. While securing a job in
construction offers a potential route out of poverty for many of
the world’s poorest, subsequent inability to work due to injury or
ill-health can drive them and their families back into destitution.
• Considering the fact that construction industry is dangerous work, many
countries have given due attention to the health and safety of workers and
established legal and technical mechanisms to have a good health and
safety practices. Most countries have established a national occupational
safety and health organization that work toward making occupational areas
safe and healthy for workers in line with the several guidelines in the areas
of Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) by the International Labor
Organization (ILO). In this context the term safety generally applies to the
protection from risk of injury and from avoidable accidents whereas the
term health refers to the well-being from the immediate and long-term
effects of exposure to unhealthy working condition. Disease and injury do
not go with the job nor can poverty justify disregard for workers’ safety and
health (ILO-OSH, 2001).
• To make sure that people are safe and healthy and to save the economic
losses associated, it is very critical that everybody understands what it
really means to be unhealthy and unsafe, what the causes of accidents are,
and the different mechanisms that can help to insure the safety and health
of workers and everybody around. In the subsequent chapters these and
other issues have been discussed in detail.
 9.2 Overview of Health and Safety in
Construction
• 9.2.1 Accidents and illness in construction and its
consequences
• Generally the health and safety issue in construction
is related to accidents and/or illness related to
construction work. Accident effects could range from
minor disabling or lost time injuries to fatal injuries.
Similarly illnesses are of various degrees which are
either caused or aggravated by the construction
process. The effect of accidents and illnesses related
to construction could be summarized as follows.
• Personally
• For the company & society
 9.2.2 Accident frequency and Severity
• Accident frequency and severity rates are the two
essential standards required for reviewing accident
statistics. These rates show on average:
– How often disabling injuries occur in any particular
industry; the accident frequency rate;
– The seriousness of the time loss involved; the accident
severity rate.
• The frequency rate gives an indication of how many
disabling injuries occur in relation to number of hours
worked. Whereas accident rate indicates the
seriousness of the disabling injury and the amount of
time that is lost by a worker in relation to number of
hours worked.
• The disparity in occupational accident rates between
different regions in the world is remarkable. Both the
fatality rates and the accident rates in Other Asia and
Islands (21.5 and 16 434 per 100 000 workers
respectively) and Sub-Saharan Africa (21and 16 012 per
100 000 workers respectively), which consist mainly of
developing countries, are much higher than that of
Established Market Economies (4.2and 3 240 per 100 000
workers), which consists of developed countries. There is
an approximate comparison between accident rates and
level of development (GDP per capita).
 9.2.3 Economics of Construction Health
and Safety
• The Cost of Accidents (CoA) can be categorized as being either direct or
indirect, which collectively constitute the total CoA. The financial measure
can readily be related to all stakeholders as it can be expressed as a
percentage of organization business volume or value of construction
completed nationally. However, the minority of contractors in fact calculate
the direct and indirect CoA. Direct costs tend to be those associated with
the treatment of the injury and any unique compensation offered to
workers as a consequence of being injured and are covered by workmen's
compensation insurance premiums. Indirect costs, which are borne by
contractors, include reduced productivity for both the returned worker(s)
and the crew or workforce; clean-up costs; replacement costs; stand-by
costs; cost of overtime; administrative costs; replacement worker
orientation; costs resulting from delays; supervision costs; costs related to
rescheduling; transportation, and wages paid while the injured is idle. The
breakdown of direct and indirect costs could be grouped as given below:
• Direct costs include wages and medical expenses
• Indirect Costs include pain and suffering, incident
investigations, production loss and process delays,
overtime, consumables, legal fees, funeral and
compensation due to fatalities.
• The CoA, and the contribution of the direct and
indirect costs, varies significantly in the literature, but
recent research conducted in the United Kingdom
(UK) by the Health & Safety Executive (HSE)
determined indirect costs to be 11 times the direct
costs. Research conducted in South Africa determined
the indirect costs to be 14.2 times the direct costs.
• Research conducted in the USA indicates the total CoA constitutes
6.5% of the value of completed construction or in the order of $50
billion annually, and UK approximately 8.5% of tender price. Research
in South Africa estimated the total CoA to be around 5% of the value
of completed construction. Notwithstanding the uncertainty in
quantifying the CoA, it must be recognized that ultimately it is .the
clients that incur the CoA as the CoA is included in contractors' cost
structures. In addition to the CoA, there is also a cost of
implementing H&S systems within a company. It is internationally
confirmed that the total CoA exceeds the cost of H&S.
• There is a business case worth understanding. The fact that the total
CoA exceeds the cost of H&S is in essence a profit Centre. Studies in
the United States have shown that every dollar spent on a good
safety program can result in four to eight dollar reduction in losses
from accidents. Furthermore, the business case for H&S is enhanced
by the fact that H&S is the catalyst for enhanced performance relative
to cost, the environment, productivity, quality, and schedule.
 9.2.4 Causes of Accidents and illnesses
• Health and safety problems related to construction are
associated to one or any of the following among others.
• 1. Unsafe work places
• Generally All appropriate precautions should be taken
to ensure that all workplaces are safe and without risk
of injury to the safety and health of workers; and to
protect persons present at or in the vicinity of a
construction site from all risks which may arise from
such site. In addition all openings and other areas likely
to pose danger to workers should be clearly indicated.
However various accidents and health problems are
observed due to unsafe work places as discussed below.
• Inadequate and unsafe Means of access
• Inadequate and unsafe means of access to and from all
workplaces exposes workers to danger. That is when there is
no enough access, no periodic supervision and maintenance
of accesses, or when accesses are not appropriately labeled
or indicated workers become prone to accidents.
• Inappropriate House keeping
• Although it is necessary that suitable housekeeping program
that includes the proper storage of materials and
equipment; the removal of scrap, waste and debris at
appropriate intervals should be established and
continuously implemented on each construction site, many
sites fail to do this and this becomes a cause for accidents to
occur and for people to get sick because of the bad working
environment.
• Unauthorized entry
• People are exposed to danger when they enter a site without
the company or authorization of a competent person and
provision of appropriate protective equipment. This is common
in construction sites that are located in built-up areas and
alongside vehicular and pedestrian traffic routes that are not
fenced to prevent the entry of unauthorized persons or when
visitors are allowed to access sites without taking enough
precaution.
• Outbreak of Fire
• When employers fail to take all appropriate measures to avoid
the risk of fire; to control quickly and efficiently any outbreak of
fire; and to bring about a quick and safe evacuation of persons,
fire becomes the cause of severe damage to properties and risks
the life of workmen. Fire outbreaks are usually caused due to
improper handling of flammable liquids, solids and gases.
 Insufficient Lighting
• Where natural lighting is not adequate to
ensure safe working conditions, people are
exposed to accidents if there is no provision of
adequate and suitable lighting, including
portable lighting where appropriate, provided
at every workplace and any other place on the
construction site where a worker may have to
pass.
 2. Scaffoldings
• It is clear that scaffoldings are main components in the
construction process of civil structures. However if they are not
properly done they can fail and cause injury and death of persons.
The failure of scaffoldings is usually attributed to the following
items:
• Poor quality of materials
• This refers to the poor quality of scaffolding making materials like
wood or steel members and connecting components. For example
when timber used in the construction of scaffolds is not straight-
grained, sound, and free from large knots, dry rot, worm holes and
other defects likely to affect its strength, the structure is likely to
fail upon use. On the other hand, steel tubes when they are not
free from cracks, splits and excessive corrosion and are not
straight to the eye can easily fail. Couplers and fittings which are
not of good standard and quality are also other points of failure.
• Poor Design
• Scaffolds are supposed to be designed to sustain
maximum load by using an appropriate safety factor. The
design of scaffolds should give due consideration to the
type of material to be used, sufficiency of bracings, quality
and number of connections, whether the scaffolding has
firm footing and the total stability of the frame etc. It
should also take into account the sufficiency of the
working platform and enough guard rails should be given
to protect persons from falling. However failing to do all
this could cost human life and inflict property damage.
• Poor inspection and maintenance
• It is very important that inspection and maintenance of scaffolds
is undertaken before the scaffolds are being taken into use; at
periodic intervals or after any alteration, interruption in use,
exposure to weather or seismic conditions or any other
occurrence likely to have affected their strength or stability.
Inspection by the competent person should more particularly
ascertain that the scaffold is of suitable type and adequate for
the job; materials used in its construction are sound and of
sufficient strength; it is of sound construction and stable; and that
the required safeguards are in position. Scaffoldings with poor
inspection record could fail unnoticed and inflict heavy damage.
• Effect of lifting appliances on scaffolds
• The effect of lifting appliances could be sever unless
scaffolds are carefully inspected by a competent person
to determine the additional strengthening and other
safety measures.
• Miss use of scaffolds
• If all scaffolds are not used appropriately and only for
the purpose for which they are designed or erected or if
they are subjected to a sudden shock due to transfer of
heavy loads, they are very likely to collapse and damage
properties and kill or injure a person. More over the
safety of workers could be threatened if they use
external scaffoldings in bad weather conditions.
• 3. Lifting appliances and gear
• Hoists, tower cranes, lifting ropes etc are used as lifting
appliances in the construction industry. A failure of such
machines can be the cause of severe damage unless
Employers have a well-planned safety program to ensure
that all the lifting appliances and lifting gear are selected,
installed, examined, tested, maintained, operated and
dismantled with a view to preventing the occurrence of any
accident in accordance with the requirements laid down in
the national laws, regulations and standards.
4. Transport, earth-moving and materials-
handling equipment
• Under this category are included power shovels and excavators,
bulldozers, scrapers, mobile asphalt layers and finishers, pavers,
road rollers etc. These are a very important component of the
construction industry; however, they can be a death threat
– When they are operated by workers who have not received
appropriate training in accordance with national laws and regulations.
– When the machines are poorly inspected and maintained.
– When they are operated in an environment which is not suitable for
these machines. These may include unsafe and not suitable access
ways, disorganized and uncontrolled traffic within the construction
work place, unstable slope and edges etc.
– When there is lack of signals to indicate danger areas
– When they are allowed to pass over a bridge or any structure they are
not supposed to etc
5. Plant, machinery, equipment and hand
tools
• These include hand tools, electric tools,
woodwork machines, concrete work
equipment, conveyors, crusher plants, power
generators etc. in order to avoid any accident
these all should regularly be inspected and
maintained, should be operated by skilled
persons only, should only be used for the
purpose they are intended to only etc. as
otherwise they can cause accidents.
6. Working at heights including roof works
• When people work at heights, they may fall
and lose their lives or become disabled. This
happens mainly when the working area is not
guarded using guard-rails or other means or
when people working at high elevations are
not psychologically and physiologically fit or
when they do not have knowledge and
experience to do such work.
 7. Excavations and earthworks
• Dangers or accidents associated with excavation and earth works include
– Dislodgement of earth, rock or other material over workers where there is no suitable shoring
or bracing to protect them.
– Fall of persons, materials or objects or the inrush of water into the excavation, shaft,
earthworks, underground works or tunnel
– Lack of adequate ventilation at every workplace and occurrence of fumes, gases, vapors, dust
or other impurities at a level dangerous or injurious to health as specified by national laws or
regulations;
– Lack of emergency exit to reach safety in the event of fire, or an inrush of water or material;
– Insufficient investigation to locate underground dangers such as the circulation of fluids or the
presence of pockets of gas.
– Lack of periodic inspection of underground works before any work is commenced.
– Improper planning for the method of excavation and the type of support work required.
– Failure to check by a competent person that the excavation will not have effect excavation on
adjoining buildings, structures or roadways and on public utilities such as underground sewers,
gas pipes, water pipes and electrical conductors that may cause danger during work.
– Danger from land to be excavated which is contaminated by harmful chemicals or gases, or by
any hazardous waste material such as asbestos.
8. Failure of Cofferdams and caissons, and
work in compressed air
• People working with cofferdam and caisson could be put in danger when:
– The construction is not good, and suitable and sound material of adequate
strength is not used;
– There is no provision of adequate means for workers to reach safety in the event
of an inrush of water or material;
– There is no provision of safe means of access to every place where workers are
employed.

• Working in compressed air is one of the main causes of illness that could
even cause death of workmen unless it is carried out only in accordance
with measures prescribed by national laws or regulations in relation to
the maximum pressure that a person is allowed to work in, the age and
medical fitness of workmen among others.
 9. Form works
• Accidents in relation to formworks are
associated with either the work man ship or
the quality of the material used. That is in
order to have safe use of formwork:
– The erection or dismantling of formwork, false
work and shoring should be carried out by trained
workers only under the supervision of a
competent person.
– Formwork, false work and shoring should be so
designed, constructed and maintained that it will
safely support all loads that may be imposed on it.
 10. Work over water

• Working over water usually becomes the

source of accidents when appropriate
measures are not taken to prevent workers
from falling, to rescue workers in danger of
drowning, and to transport workers safely and
sufficiently.
 11. Demolition
• Demolition of any building or structure could
present danger to workers or to the public
unless appropriate precautions, methods and
procedures are adopted to demolition and to
dispose waste or residues, in accordance with
national laws or regulations; demolition also
requires sufficient planning and supervision of
a competent person.
• Before any demolition operations begin it is important to look in to
the following guidelines:
a) Structural details and builders' drawings should be obtained wherever
possible;
b) Wherever possible, details of the previous use should be obtained to
identify any possible contamination and hazards from chemicals,
flammables, etc.;
c) An initial survey should be carried out to identify any structural problems
and risks associated with flammable substances and substances hazardous
to health. The survey should note the type of ground on which the
structure is erected, the condition of the roof trusses, the type of framing
used in framed structures and the load-bearing walls;
d) Premises such as hospitals, telephone exchanges and industrial premises
containing equipment sensitive to vibration and dust and all premises
sensitive to noise should be located;
e) A method of demolition should be formulated after the survey and
recorded in a method statement having taken all the various considerations
into account and identifying the problems and their solutions;
f) A building should be checked and it should be verified that it is vacant.
 12. Electricity
• It is clear that electricity is vital to execute
various activities in construction. However; it is
also dangerous unless it is handled well. That is
to avoid accidents related to electricity all
electrical equipment should be of good quality,
and they should be constructed, installed and
maintained by a competent person, and so used
as to guard against danger.
• Untidy place could a pretty good cause of
accidents.
 13. Explosives

• Explosives, although very important to undertake

construction works in rocky areas, are extremely
dangerous and have devastating effect if not
properly handled. That is explosives should be
stored, transported, handled or used under
conditions prescribed by national laws or
regulations and by a competent person, who should
take all necessary steps to ensure that workers and
other persons are not exposed to risk of injury.
• 14. Health hazards, first aid and occupational health services
• Many workers die or get sick due to exposure to various health hazards, lack of first aid or insufficient
occupational health services.
• Health hazards
• The measure health hazards or causes of sickness in the construction industry are mainly related to one
or any of the under listed items.
a) Hazardous substances: inhaling or coming in contact with toxic chemicals and/or wastes to be disposed
could cause various sicknesses ranging from simple skin etch to cancer and other fatal diseases.
b) Dangerous atmospheres: this refers to a working environment where a toxic or harmful substance may
be present, or in which there may be an oxygen deficiency or it is a flammable atmosphere. It is also
related to working naked light or flame or hot work such as welding, cutting and soldering.
c) Radiation hazards: construction workers could be exposed to ionizing radiations like in nuclear industry
which contain radioactive materials or to non-ionizing radiations like in welding, torch and soldering
operations. If proper measures, according to the national regulations, are not taken, workmen could be
subjected to danger ranging from cancer to stroke.
d) Heat stress, cold and wet conditions: construction works in an extreme temperature could be subjected
to various health problems. A person working in a very high temperature for example could face health
problem ranging from fatal heat stroke to minor heat fatigue.
e) Noise and vibration: workers could be subjected to severe illnesses related to noise and vibration which
is beyond the permissible limit, unless measures are taken to protect workmen from harmful effects of
sound and vibration. This could include replacing hazardous machines and processes by less hazardous
ones, reducing the exposure of workers, providing personal hearing protection etc.
f) Biological agents: this is related to the transmission of different types of diseases due to biological
agents.
 First Aid
• The availability of first aid that includes
trained personnel and full first aid kit in
construction sites is very important for the
safety of workers. However, workers in sites
that do not have full first aid facilities are
observed to be subjected to severe injuries.
•
 Occupational health services
• One very important step of insuring the health
and safety of workers is the practice of good
occupational health services. This includes the
overall health surveillance that workers should be
subjected to in site, monitoring and control of the
working environment and planning of safety and
health precautions, promoting awareness of
possible health hazards, training etc. however
many sites become negligent of this and work
force become subject to different types of
occupational health problems.
 15. Welfare
• It is quite important that workers should have
access to sanitary and washing facilities or
showers; facilities for changing and for the storage
and drying of clothing; accommodation for taking
meals and for taking shelter during interruption of
work due to adverse weather conditions. And
drinking water should be available at a reasonable
distance. However, when there is no drinking
water, no sanitary facilities, no washing facilities no
cloakrooms, no shelters, no living accommodation
etc, workmen become subject to different types of
health problems which may also cause accidents.
 16. Personal protective equipment and
protective clothing
• Many workers get injured when they fail to
use personal protective equipment and
closing (PPE). This includes the following list of
items.
• Table
• These all causes of health and safety problems
can be grouped into two main groups;
– Shaping factors
– Originating factors
 Shaping factors
• This factor includes the following main categories:
1. Worker Factors. This refers to the attitude of
workers towards safety, lack of education and
training, lack of supervision, poor communication,
poor health, and long working hours.
2. Work place factors. This includes site layout,
ground conditions, and environmental conditions.
3. Materials and Equipment. This includes hazards
related to materials, tools, and equipment of all
kind used in the site.
 Originating influences/root causes

• The originating influences in construction

accidents are the high level determinates of
the nature, extent and existence of the
immediate causes of accidents. This include
1. Permanent works design.
2. Project management.
3. Construction process.
4. Safety culture.