GROUP 7

HWACHA TADIWANASHE R188193Y

JAYA CUTHBERT R195301S
JONGA WALTER R188158N
KAJOWE DEXTER R197140F
KANDAWASVIKA TREVOR R184132R
KARINDI VIMBAI R199345N
 Optical amplifiers and amplified systems
• Design and principles of optical fiber amplifiers
• Main characteristics : Gain, power and noise
• Saturation effects
• Noise accumulation in long span systems
• Implication for long distance (trans-oceanic) data transmission
• Non linear effects: Effective length of non-linear interraction
• Main effects: Self phase modulation, Ramman scattering,
Brillouin scattering, four wave mixing , optical solitons
 Design and principles of optical fiber amplifiers
• In order to transmit signals over long distances (>100 km) it is
necessary to compensate for attenuation losses within the fiber
• Initially this was accomplished with an optoelectronic module
consisting of anoptical receiver, a regeneration and equalization
system, and an optical transmitter to send the data.
• Several types of optical amplifiers have since been
demonstrated to replace the OE – electronic regeneration
systems.
• These systems eliminate the need for E-O and O-E conversions.
 Design and principles of optical fiber amplifiers
• 1. Gain: is the ratio between the output power and the input power. It is a
measure of how much the signal is amplified by the amplifier. The gain
is typically expressed in decibels (dB).
• 2. Saturation Power: The saturation power is the power level at which the
output gain begins to saturate or level off. At this point, increasing the
input power will not result in a corresponding increase in the output
power.
• 3. Noise Figure: The noise figure is a measure of the amount of noise
added by the amplifier to the input signal. It is expressed in decibels and
is an important factor in determining the overall system performance.
 Design and principles of optical fiber amplifiers
• 4. Output Power: The output power of an optical amplifier is
the maximum power level that the amplifier can provide
without saturating. It is typically expressed in units of
milliwatts (mW) or dBm.
• 6. Bandwidth: The bandwidth of an optical amplifier is the
range of frequencies over which the amplifier can provide an
amplified output signal. It is typically expressed in units of
gigahertz (GHz) or megahertz (MHz).
 Design and principles of optical fiber amplifiers
Some types of OAs that have been demonstrated include:

• Semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs)

• Fiber Raman and Brillouin amplifiers
• Rare earth doped fiber amplifiers (erbium – EDFA 1500 nm,
praseodymium – PDFA 1300 nm)
 Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
• EDFA is based on the principle of stimulated emission, which is
achieved through the use of erbium-doped fibers.
• The design of EDFA amplifier comprises of three main parts which are:
• 1. Erbium-doped fiber: The erbium-doped fiber is the core component of
EDFA amplifier. The fiber is specially designed to contain erbium ions,
which act as the amplifying medium for optical signals.
• 2. Pump source: The pump laser is used to excite the erbium ions in the
fiber. The pump source is designed to provide high-power and stable
laser beams at specific wavelengths that match the absorption bands of
the erbium ions.
 Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
• Optical filters: The optical filters are used to select the specific
wavelengths of the optical signals to be amplified. The filters ensure that
only the desired optical signals are amplified while others are
suppressed.
• The principles and design of EDFA amplifier make it a highly useful
component in optical communication networks, as it provides high
optical gain, low noise, and broad bandwidth amplification of optical
signals.
• It is widely used in long-haul fiber optic communication systems, optical
amplifiers, and wavelength-division multiplexing systems.
 EDFA Advantages
• High power transfer efficiency from pump to signal power (> 50%).
• Wide spectral band amplification with relative flat gain (>20 dB) –
useful for
• WDM applications.
• Saturation output > 1 mW (10 to 25 dBm).
• Gain-time constant long (>100 msec)( low noise).
• Low noise figure.
• Polarization independent.
• Suitable for long-haul application
 EDFA Disdvantages
• Relatively large devices (km lengths of fiber) – not easily
integrated with other devices.
• ASE – amplified spontaneous emission. There is always some
output even with no signal input due to some excitation of ions
in the fiber – spontaneous noise.
• Cross-talk effects
• Gain Saturation effects
 Ramman amplifier
• It is based on the stimulated Raman scattering (SRS)
phenomenon, when a lower frequency signal photon induces
the inelastic scattering of a higher-frequency pump photon in
an optical medium in the nonlinear regime.
• The main advantage that this amplifier has over the EDFA is
that it generates very less noise and hence does not degrade
span Optical to Signal Noise Ratio (OSNR) as much as the
EDFA.
• Its typical application is in EDFA spans where additional gain
is required but the OSNR limit has been reached.
 Characteristics of Ramman amplifier
• Works at any wavelength Distributed amplification
• Broad gain bandwidth (with the use of multiple pump
• wavelengths)
• Dual pumping (gain over whole transmission span)

• Non-uniform gain (need multiple pump lasers)

• Pump noise transfer (Raman process is very fast)
• Multi-path interference
 Semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs)
• A semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) is a device used to amplify optical signals
by utilizing the stimulated emission and absorption properties of a semiconductor
material. The following are some of the design and principles of SOA:
• 1. Active region design: The active region of an SOA is designed to ensure efficient
amplification of optical signals. It is usually made up of a semiconductor material
such as gallium arsenide (GaAs) or indium phosphide (InP), which is doped with
doping impurities.
• 2. Optical confinement: means of optical confinement for efficient amplification
• 3. Electrical confinement: for current to flow only through the active region of the
device.
• 4. Gain medium: usually a semiconductor material that has a bandgap that is small
enough to allow for amplification at low signal powers.
 Characteristics of SOA
• Polarization dependent – require polarization maintaining fiber
• Relatively high gain ~20 dB
• Output saturation power 5-10 dBm
• Large BW
• Can operate at 800, 1300, and 1500 nm wavelength regions.
• Compact and easily integrated with other devices
• Can be integrated into arrays
• High noise figure and cross-talk levels due to nonlinear
phenomenon such as 4-wave mixing
 Noise accumulation in long span systems
• Noise accumulation in long span systems can occur due to various factors such
as signal attenuation, spontaneous emission, and amplified spontaneous
emission.
• The signal attenuation can be caused by fiber losses, connector losses, and
scattering losses. As the signal travels through the fiber, it experiences a
decrease in power, leading to a decrease in the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of
the signal. This can result in an accumulation of noise in the system.
• Spontaneous emission also contributes to noise accumulation in long span
systems. When the excited atoms in the amplifier return to their ground state,
they emit photons randomly in all directions. These photons add to the noise in
the system, reducing the SNR.
 Noise accumulation in long span systems
• Amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) is another significant source of
noise in optical amplifiers. As the signal travels through the fiber, it
stimulates the emission of photons by the gain medium in the amplifier.
• This results in a random noise background, which contributes to the
overall noise in the system. As the signal transmission distance increases,
the ASE noise accumulates, leading to a reduction in the SNR.
• To minimize noise accumulation in long span systems, measures such as
signal regeneration, the use of optical filters to remove ASE noise, and
the use of high-quality optical components and cables can be
implemented.
Implication for long distance (trans-oceanic) data
transmission
• Optical amplifiers have significant implications for transoceanic data
transmission as they allow for reliable transmission of high-speed data over
long distances without the need for frequent signal regeneration.
• This reduces the cost and complexity of building and maintaining undersea
fiber-optic communication networks.
• With optical amplifiers, data can be transmitted over thousands of kilometers
without significant degradation, which is essential for global communication
networks. This technology also enables the use of wavelength-division
multiplexing (WDM) techniques, in which multiple channels of data are
transmitted concurrently on different wavelengths of light, further increasing
the capacity of these networks.
• Overall, optical amplifiers have revolutionized transoceanic data transmission,
allowing for faster, more efficient communication across the globe
 Non-linear effects
• Nonlinear effects in optical amplifiers are those effects that
result from the interaction of the optical signal with the medium
of the optical amplifier.
• These nonlinear effects can limit the performance of optical
amplifiers and must be carefully controlled and mitigated in
high-speed optical communication systems.
 Effective length of non-linear interraction
• In general, the effective length of non-linear interaction in
optical amplifiers is governed by the strength of the non-linear
coefficient of the active medium, as well as the optical power
level.
• The higher the power level, the larger the effective length of the
non-linear interaction.
• The effective length of non-linear interaction in an optical
amplifier depends on several factors such as the optical power
level, the fiber type, wavelength band, and the type of non-
linear interaction involved.
 Self phase modulation
• SPM is a nonlinear optical effect that occurs in optical fibres due to the
Kerr effect (i.e the change in refractive index of a material with respect
to the intensity of light passing through it.)
• The SPM effect is characterized by a spectral broadening of the optical
signal.
• This broadening occurs because the different spectral components of the
signal experience different amounts of phase shift due to the Kerr effect.
• As a result, the optical signal spreads out in frequency, leading to a broad
spectrum.
 Self phase modulation
• The SPM effect can be beneficial in certain applications.
• it can be used to generate optical frequency combs, which have applications in
precision metrology and spectroscopy. However, in most cases, SPM is a
detrimental effect that limits the capacity of optical communication systems.
• To mitigate the effects of SPM, various techniques have been developed,
including
– dispersion compensation,
– spectral shaping, and
– optical phase conjugation.
These techniques aim to reduce the spectral broadening caused by SPM and
thus improve the quality and capacity of optical communication systems.
 Ramman scattering
• This is a phenomenon in which photons of light are scattered by
molecules or atoms, which then gain or lose energy in the process.
• This occurs via an inelastic scattering mechanism, where the scattered
photons have a different energy and wavelength than the incident
photons.
• Raman scattering is a nonlinear effect that occurs when an optical signal
interacts with the molecular vibration of the medium.
• This results in the transfer of energy from the optical signal to the
molecular vibrations, causing signal attenuation and distortion.
 Brillouin scattering
• This is a phenomenon that occurs in optical fibers where light is
scattered by the thermal vibrations (temperature fluctuations) of the glass
fibers.
• It results in the creation of acoustic waves that are amplified by the
interaction between the acoustic waves and light waves.
• The acoustic waves created by the temperature fluctuations cause the
light waves to shift in frequency.
• The frequency shift that occurs due to the interaction between the light
and acoustic waves is called the Brillouin frequency shift.
 Brillouin scattering
• The Brillouin scattering phenomenon can cause distortions and
noise in the transmitted signal,
• This can be problematic for long-distance communication
systems.
• To mitigate the effects of Brillouin scattering, optical fiber
designers and engineers have developed various techniques,
such as using special fibers that reduce the impact of thermal
fluctuations and designing fiber amplifiers that are resistant to
Brillouin scattering
 Four wave mixing
• FWM is a nonlinear optical phenomenon that occurs when different
wavelength optical signals interact with each other inside an optical fibre.
• It occurs in Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) systems, when optical
signals with different wavelengths are transmitted simultaneously through the
same fibre.
• FWM arises due to the third-order nonlinear susceptibility of the fibre
material.
• When two or more optical signals with different frequencies interact inside the
fibre, they can create a new signal with a frequency that is the sum or
difference of the interacting signals.
• This new signal can then interact again with the original signals or other
signals and create more new signals with different frequencies, leading to a
complex interplay of different frequency components.
 Four wave mixing
• FWM can have both positive and negative effects on fibre-optic
transmission.
• It can lead to crosstalk among different channels in a WDM
system, resulting in signal distortion and deterioration of
system performance.
• On the other hand, FWM can also be exploited for signal
processing applications, such as optical amplification, signal
regeneration, and wavelength conversion.
 Four wave mixing
• To mitigate the negative effects of FWM in WDM systems,
several techniques have been developed:
– dispersion-shifted fibres,
– arranging channels with larger frequency spacing, and
– implementing nonlinear compensation techniques. By
controlling the FWM effect, optical fibre communication
systems can achieve high performance and reliability,
making them crucial for modern communication networks.
 Optical solitons
• These are self-sustaining and self-stabilizing waves that propagate without
distorting their shape over long distances in optical fibers, due to the balance
between the effects of dispersion and nonlinearity.
• They are a type of wave packet that maintains its shape and speed while
traveling, instead of dispersing or spreading out over time.
• The formation of optical solitons in optical fibers is due to the competition
between two opposing effects: chromatic dispersion and nonlinearity.
• Chromatic dispersion is the spreading out of light as it travels through an
optical fiber due to the different wavelengths of light traveling at different
speeds. Nonlinearity is the phenomenon where the index of refraction of the
fiber changes with the intensity of light, causing a change in the speed of light.
 Optical solitons
• As the light travels through the fiber, the dispersion causes the pulse to
spread out, while the nonlinearity causes the pulse to self-focus.
• When these two effects are in balance, the pulse can form a soliton.
• Optical solitons have a number of practical applications, including in
long-distance communications, where they can transmit data over
thousands of kilometers without the need for signal regeneration.
• They are also used in fiber lasers and amplifiers, where they can increase
the power and energy of the light without causing damage to the fiber.
 References
• M. E. Marhic, Fiber Optical Parametric Amplifiers, Oscillators
and Related Devices (Cambridge University, 2007)
• Raman Amplification in Fiber Optical Communication
Systems, edited by Clifford Headley, Govind Agrawal, Elsevier
Academic Press 2005