Sewage

Engineering
Systems
2nd Semester 2022-2023
Prepared By
Assoc.Prof.Dr.Thamir M. Ahmed 1
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 WASTEWATER SOURCES AND FLOW RATES
Like with water supply design, a fundamental prerequisite to begin the
design of wastewater facilities is a determination of the design
capacity. This, in turn, is a function of the wastewater flow rates. The
determination of wastewater flow rates consists of five parts:
(1) selection of a design period,
(2) estimation of the population and commercial and industrial
growth,
(3) estimation of wastewater flows,
(4) estimation of infiltration and inflow, and
(5) estimation of the variability of the wastewater flow rates.

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Design Period

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Components of Wastewater :
Wastewater may be classified into the following components:
1- Domestic or sanitary wastewater: Wastewater discharged from
residences, commercial (e.g., banks, restaurants, retail stores), and
institutional facilities (e.g., schools and hospitals). All the water
withdrawn for use does not end up in the sewer. A rough estimate of 60
to 90 percent of the domestic water-withdrawal rate may be used to
estimate the production of residential wastewater.
2-Commercial Wastewater: Estimates for commercial wastewater flows
range from 7.5 to 14 m 3 /ha · d
3- Industrial wastewater: Wastewater discharged from industries (e.g.,
manufacturing and chemical processes). A typical design value for
estimating the flows from industrial districts that have few wet
processes is in the range 7.5 to 14 m 3 /ha ・ d for light industrial
development and 14 to 28 m 3 /ha ・ d for medium industrial
development (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003).

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4- Infiltration and inflow (I/I): The extraneous flows in sewers are
defined as follows (Federal Register, 1974):
i- Infiltration. The water entering a sewer system, including sewer service
connections and from the ground through foundation drains, defective pipes, pipe
joints, connections, or manhole walls. Infiltration does not include inflow.
ii-Inflow. The water discharged into a sewer system, including service connections
from such sources as roof down spouts (also called leaders ); basement, yard, and
area drains; cooling-water discharges; drains from springs and swampy areas;
manhole covers; cross connections from storm sewers and combined sewers; catch
basins; storm water; surface runoff; street wash water; or drainage. This category is
further subdivided as:
• Steady inflow. This category includes water from basement and footing drains,
cooling water discharges, and drains from springs and swampy(land covered by salt
layer) areas. It is not distinguishable from infiltration when hydraulic measurements
are taken in the sewer.
• Direct inflow. These are inflows that cause an almost immediate increase in
wastewater flows. Sources of direct inflow include roof downspouts; basement, yard
(park), and area drains; footing drains; manhole covers; cross connections from
storm sewers and combined sewers; catch basins; storm water; surface runoff; street
wash water; or drainage.
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5- Storm water. Runoff from rainfall and snow melt.
a The ratio of the highest operating flow rate to the lowest operating flow rate.
Adapted from Metcalf & Eddy, 2003.

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 Pipes Materials and loads
Materials used for pipes:
Sewers are made from:
1- Concrete
2- Reinforced concrete
3- Vitrified clay
4- Asbestos cement
5- Cast iron (lined with cement).
6- Ductile iron (lined with
cement).
7- Steel (lined with cement).
8- PVC, UPVC
9- GRB (fiber glass).
Factors effecting the selection of materials:
1- Chemical characteristics of wastewater
and degree of resistance to acid, base,
solvents,
2- Resistance to scour and flow (friction
coefficient).
3- External forces and internal pressures.
4- Soil conditions.
5- Type of backfill
6- Useful life
7- Strength and water tightness of joints and
effective control of infiltration and inflow.
8- Availability in diameter, length, and ease
of installation.
9- Cost of construction and maintenance.
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Trench of Sewers:

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Observation Rooms
(Manholes)
Manholes are placed in the
following cases:
1 - change the direction of the tube.
2 - change the diameter of the pipe.
3 - a straight long-distance.
4 - Slope pipeline change.
5 - Place the intersection of the pipe.
6 - The sudden change in level.

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 Loads on pipes
When pipes are buried, many forces affect them. The following are the main forces expected to affect
buried pipes:

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 − 2 𝑘. 𝑓 . 𝐻
1− 𝑒
𝐵𝑑
𝐶𝑑=
2 𝑘. 𝑓

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Example (1)

Calculate the backfill load on a 610 mm pipe given the following information:
• Backfill depth (H) = 3.6 m
• Trench width at the top of the pipe is 1.2 m
• Backfill is saturated clay, P = 1920 kg/m3
Solution
H/Bd = 3.6/1.2 = 3 from the figure Cd=2.2
Or you can calculate Cd from the equation

1− 𝑒
− 2 𝑘. 𝑓 . 𝐻 • =2.2
𝐵𝑑
𝐶𝑑=
2 𝑘. 𝑓

= 6082 N/m

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 B. Wheel loads for trucks
Wheel loads from trucks and vehicles transmit live loads to buried sewer lines. When the
sewer is deep, only a small portion of the load is transmitted to the sewers. Equations to
compute live loads are very complex that’s why designers pre-calculated data as illustrated
by tables .Table gives the highway truck loads transmitted to buried circular pipe in kN/m.
The information needed are Pipe diameter (d). Height of fill (H) above pipe (m).
Note: The load is based on (71.17 kN dual-tire wheel load).
If the cover fill is less than ( 1m ) the value obtained from table
Should be multiplied by an impact factor obtained from next table.
  Height of Backfill above pipe (m)   Height of Cover H(m) Impact factor
Diam 0.15 0.2 0.46 0.61 0.76 0.91 1.07 1.22 1.52 1.83 Diam
eter eter 0 m to 0.3 m 1.3
(mm) (mm) 0.31 m to 0.6 m 1.2
305 70.8 39.9 22.5 13.9 8.4 5.3 4.6 3.5 2.5 0.7 305
381 86.4 48.5 27.3 17 10.2 6.4 5.2 4.2 3 0.8 381 0.61 m to 0.9 m 1.1
457   57.3 32.1 20 12 7.6 6.6 5 3.5 1 457 0.91 m and greater 1.0
533   65.7 36.9 23.1 13.9 8.7 7.6 5.7 4. 1 1.1 533
610     41.7 26.1 15.7 9.9 8.6 6.5 4.6 1.3 610
686     45.2 29.2 17.5 11.1 9.6 7.2 5.2 1.4 686
762       32.2 19.4 12.2 10.7 8 5.7 1.6 762
838       34.6 21.2 13.4 11.7 8.7 6.2 1.7 838
914         23.1 14.5 12.7 9.5 6.8 1.9 914
1067         24.5 16.9 14.7 11 7.8 2.1 1067
1219           17.8 16.7 12.5 8.9 2.5 1219
1372             17.3 14 10 2.7 1372
1524               14.5 11.1 3 1524
1676                 12.1 3.3 1676
1829                 12.5 3.6 1829
1981                   3.9 1981
2134                   4 2134
                       
                       

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Example (2)
Calculate the wheel load on a 610 mm pipe that has a backfill cover of 0.8 m ?
Solution
From the table the wheel load is 14.15 kN / m (by interpolation)
Since H = 0.80 m and in the range (0.61 m – 0.90 m) use table to find the impact factor of 1.1
Truck load = 14.15 X 1.1 = 15.57 KN/m.
  Height of Backfill above pipe (m)  
Diam 0.15 0.2 0.46 0.61 0.76 0.91 1.07 1.22 1.52 1.83 Diam
eter eter
(mm) (mm)

305 70.8 39.9 22.5 13.9 8.4 5.3 4.6 3.5 2.5 0.7 305 Height of Cover H(m) Impact factor
381 86.4 48.5 27.3 17 10.2 6.4 5.2 4.2 3 0.8 381 0 m to 0.3 m 1.3
457   57.3 32.1 20 12 7.6 6.6 5 3.5 1 457
533   65.7 36.9 23.1 13.9 8.7 7.6 5.7 4. 1 1.1 533 0.31 m to 0.6 m 1.2
610     41.7 26.1 15.7 9.9 8.6 6.5 4.6 1.3 610 0.61 m to 0.9 m 1.1
686     45.2 29.2 17.5 11.1 9.6 7.2 5.2 1.4 686
762       32.2 19.4 12.2 10.7 8 5.7 1.6 762 0.91 m and greater 1.0
838       34.6 21.2 13.4 11.7 8.7 6.2 1.7 838
914         23.1 14.5 12.7 9.5 6.8 1.9 914
1067         24.5 16.9 14.7 11 7.8 2.1 1067
1219           17.8 16.7 12.5 8.9 2.5 1219
1372             17.3 14 10 2.7 1372
1524               14.5 11.1 3 1524
1676                 12.1 3.3 1676
1829                 12.5 3.6 1829
1981                   3.9 1981
2134                   4 2134
                       
                       

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C- Superficial loads on buried pipes:
Superficial loads are produced by buildings and other structures crossing the trench or built along the
trench.
The proportion of superficial loads that reach the pipe is estimated in tables 1 and 2; the forces are
divided into two types:
Long superficial → Length of Application > trench Width.
Short superficial → Length of Application ≤ trench Width.

To find the portion of superficial load transmitted to the pipes from tables 1 and 2 one should know :
a. Depth of trench
b. Width of trench
c. Soil type
For table 2, the minimum values are for →
Note: [The truck load can be also estimated as a superficial load].

Trench Trench

Structure L Structure L

W
W
[Long superficial load]
[Short superficial load] 28
 Table 1. Proportion of long superficial loads reaching pipe in trench
Ratio of H/B Sand and damp Saturated topsoil Damp yellow clay Saturated yellow
topsoil clay
0 1 1 1 1
0.5 0.85 0.86 0.88 0.89
1 0.72 0.75 0.77 0.8
1.5 0.61 0.64 0.67 0.72
2 0.52 0.55 0.59 0.64
2.5 0.44 0.48 0.52 0.57
3 0.37 0.41 0.45 0.51
4 0.27 0.31 0.35 0.41
5 0.19 0.23 0.27 0.33
6 0.14 0.17 0.2 0.26
8 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.17
10 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.11

Table 2. Proportion of short superficial loads reaching pipe in trench

Ratio of Sand and damp Saturated topsoil Damp yellow clay Saturated yellow
H/B topsoil clay
  Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max when L=W
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.5 0.77 0.12 0.78 0.13 0.79 0.13 0.81 0.13 Min when L=<0.1 W
1 0.59 0.02 0.61 0.02 0.63 0.02 0.66 0.02
1.5 0.46   0.48   0.51   0.54  
2 0.35   0.38   0.4   0.44  
2.5 0.32   0.29   0.32   0.35  
3 0.21   0.23   0.25   0.29  
4 0.12   0.14   0.16   0.19  
5 0.07   0.09   0.1   0.13  
6 0.04   0.05   0.06   0.08  
8 0.02   0.02   0.03   0.04  
10 0.01   0.01   0.01   0.02  

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 Example (3)

A concrete structure 0.91 m wide with a weight of 1340 kg/m crosses a trench 1.22 m
wide in damp clay. The structure bears on the soil 1.83 m above the top of the pipe. Find
the load transmitted to the pipe.

Solution

The load applied by the structure is 1340X1.22= 1635 kg

The pressure applied to the soil above the pipe is
P= 1635/0.91= 1795 kg/m
The ratio of depth to the width is 1.83/1.22= 1.5 From table 2, the maximum
proportion of the load reaching the pipe will be 0.51.
Therefore the load reaching the pipe will be Trench
P = 1795X0.51=915 kg/m
Structure L= 0.91 m

W=1.22 m

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 Strength of pipes:
The crushing strength of sewer pipes is determined by the three-edge bearing test. The pipe is stressed
until failure occurs. Table (3) gives the minimum crushing strength for clay pipes.
Strength requirements for reinforced concrete pipes are given in table 4, for this table the crushing force
correspond to 0.25mm crack. The values in the table are pre mm diameter, that’s why they are
called D-Loads (KN/m.mm)
The pipe strength in supporting loads depends –on the method of pipe bedding :
- Class (D) bedding support the three-bearing load only.
- Class(C) support (1.5) the three-edge load (1.5 = Load factor)
- Class (B) bedding has a load factor of 1.9.
- Class (A) bedding has a load factor of 2.3 to 3.4.
- Other pipe material has similar tables to estimate their strength

The three- edge bearing test

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Example (4)

A 610 mm concrete pipe is subjected to a load of 40 KN/m (backfill and wheel load). The D-load
of the pipe to produce 0.25 mm crack is 38.3N/m.mm (The three edge test strength). The pipe
bedding is Class A with a load factor of 3.4.
a) What is the strength of this pipe
b) Is the strength enough to resist the applied load if the minimum factor of safety is 1.5
c) What is the final factor of safety in this case

Solution
a) Strength of the pipe= the three edge test strength X bedding load factor = (38.3X610)X3.4=
79434.2 N/m = 79.4 KN/m
b) Factored applied stress = applied stress X load factor = 40X 1.5= 60 KN/m.
c) Since the strength is 79.4 KN/m > factored applied stress (60 KN/m), so the strength is
enough.
Factor of safety = pipe strength/ applied stress= the three edge test strength X bedding load
factor/ applied stress.

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 Design Procedures
Determine the area of each service area. Measure the area of each service area
by using a scale, and enter the value on the map.
1. Summarize the basic design criteria.
a. Design period (usually saturation period used);
b. Population density;
c. Residential wastewater flow (Obtain the peaking factor);
d. Infiltration allowances;
e. Inflow allowances
f. Hydraulic design equation;
g. Minimum pipe size ;
h. Minimum velocity; and
i. Minimum cover.

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ADF =average Daily Flow

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METERIC UNITS

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Design of Strom Sewer
•Main purpose
•To provide safe passage of vehicles
•To collect, convey and discharge storm water
•Design involves
•Layout of the sewer lines
•Estimation of runoff from and area
•Design of the sewer

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Design of storm sewers

Design flow
Design flow is the maximum flow that can pass through a
specified structure safely. In determining this design flow
the possibility of occurrence has been fixed. Once this is
fixed the design flow magnitude can be determined.

Generally, to design drainage facilities the recurrence

interval shown in table 4-1 can be used.

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 Principles of Floods Network Design
1 – divide the project area into partial areas according to the water
division lines (A).
2 - Find the runoff coefficient (C).

3 - Find the time to enter flood water to the sewers (t).

4 – Determine the rainfall intensity according to the data
available in each area.
5 - calculate the amount of flood flowing into each region (Q).

6 – Determine the pipe diameter for each section (D) .

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 Example: Determine the surface runoff coefficient to region of 0.5 sq.Km area. The 35% of the area occupied by residential buildings ,40% covered by asphaltic and
concrete lanes and sidewalks and the remaining area is leveled sandy soil earth covered with grass. Then determine the surface flow when the rainfall intensity is 64
mm/hrs?

Type of Area Percentage of area Partial area Ci coefficient

% Sq.Km.

residential 35 175000 0.70 - 0.95 0.245 – 0.3325

buildings

asphaltic and 40 200000 0.75 - 0.85 0.30- 0.34

concrete lanes
and sidewalks
leveled sandy 25 125000 0.05 - 0.10 0.0125 – 0.025
soil earth
covered with
grass
Total 0.5575 – 0.6975

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The rainfall intensity can be read from the IDF curve or
calculated by using a relevant formula.

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•Time of entry (inlet time or overland flow): is the time required for water to reach a
defined channel such as a street gutter, plus the gutter flow time to the inlet.
•Kirpich’s equation can also be used to calculate inlet time as

Channel flow time: is the time of flow through the sewers to the point at which rate of
flow is being assessed.

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Example: Determine the difference in pressure for pipe of
1500 m long ,200 mm diameter and the following particulars?

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Example: Calculate the flow collection time of residential buildings consist of three zones
as shown in the figure when the velocity is 0.75 m/sec?

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Time of flow from entrance 1 to entrance 2:

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Intensity Time of rainfall

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Example: Calculate the flow rate toward the area of 0.25
sq.km when the values of C=0.30 , a=4830 , b=25 and t=12
minutes?

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Flow Through Flood Sewers:
the flow through flood sewers considered as flow through
open channels and Manning's Formula is valid to use:

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Example: Circular pipe has a slope of 0.0025 and carry a full flow of 0.048
cumecs .Determine the diameter of pipe and the velocity of flow when the Manning's
roughness coefficient is 0.013 ?

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 Draw longitudinal diagrams
contains the following information:
1 - ground level and location of the rock layer and type of pipes used mattress.
2 - diameters and lengths and Preference pipe and the level of the bottom of each
of them.
3 - manholes sites and depths and numbers.

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Flood water drainage networks:
Created flood water drainage pipes are as follows:
1 - planning drainage lines and do not conflict with the
water lines and electricity, telephone and gas and other
structures.
2 - The beginning of installing the pipes starting from the
end of network part.
3 - Make the trench with appropriate width and depth
according to the lengths , size of pipes and consider the
suitable spacing between the pipes and edges of trench .

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 In the figure shown, determine total Q?I2880/(30+tc)

M1: M2:
 
=
=

0.8539
1.32 m

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M3:
25.154+6.674+7.03=38.858 min.
=

M4:
=49.501 min.
=

   
   

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 Examples
• 1. Determine designed discharge for a combined system serving population of
50000 with rate of water supply of 135 LPCD. The catchment area is 100
hectares and the average coefficient of runoff is 0.60. The time of
concentration for the design rainfall is 30 min and the relation between
intensity of rainfall and duration is I = 1000/(t + 20).
• Solution:
• Estimation of sewage quantity Considering 80% of the water supplied will
result in wastewater generation, The quantity of sanitary sewage (Qw.w):
• Qw.w= 50000 x 135 x 0.80 = 5400 m3 /day = 0.0625 m³ /sec
• Considering peak factor of 2.5,
• the design discharge for sanitary sewage = 0.0625 x 2.5 = 0.156 m³ /sec
• Estimation of storm water discharge Intensity of rainfall,
• I = 1000/(t + 20) Therefore, I = 1000/(30 + 20) = 20 mm/h
• Hence, storm water runoff,
• Q = C.I.A/360 = 0.6 x 20 x 100/(360) = 3.33 m³ /sec
• Therefore, design discharge for combined sewer = 3.33 + 0.156 = 3.49 m³ /sec
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2. The catchment area is of 300 hectares. The surface cover in the
catchment can be classified as given below:

Calculate the runoff coefficient and quantity of storm water

runoff, if intensity of rainfall is 30 mm/h for rain with duration
equal to time of concentration. If population density in the area
is 350 persons per hectare and rate of water supply is 200
LPCD, calculate design discharge for separate system, partially
separate system, and combined system.
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Solution:
Estimation of storm water discharge for storm water drain of
separate system Overall runoff coefficient:

C= (0.15 x 0.90 + 0.15 x 0.80 + 0.25 x 0.15 + 0.20 x 0.4 + 0.15 x

0.1 + 0.10 x 0.5) 0.15 + 0.15 + 0.25 + 0.20 + 0.15 + 0.10 = 0.44

Therefore quantity of storm water,

= C.I.A/360 = 0.44 x 30 x 300/360 = 11 /sec

• Estimation of sewage discharge for sanitary sewer of separate

system Quantity of sanitary sewage
• = 300 x 350 x 200 x 0.80 = 16800 /day
= 0.194 m3 /sec
Considering peak factor of 2, the design discharge for sanitary
sewers , = 0.194 x 2 = 0.389 /sec 88
Estimation of discharge for partially separate system Storm water
discharge falling on roofs and paved courtyards will be added to the
sanitary sewer. This quantity can be estimated as:

Average coefficient of runoff = (0.90 x 45 + 0.80 x 45) / 90 = 0.85

Discharge = 0.85 x 30 x 90 / 360 = 6.375 /sec

Therefore total discharge in the sanitary sewer of partially separate

system = 6.375 + 0.389 = 6.764 /sec
,

and the discharge in storm water drains = 11 – 6.375 = 4.625 /sec

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Example: conditions: Design a depressed sewer system using the
following given
■ Diameter of gravity sewer to be connected by depressed sewer (36
in) 910 mm
■ Slope of incoming sewer, S 0.0016 m/m (ft/ft)
■ Minimum flow velocity in depressed sewer 0.9 m/s (3 ft/s)
■ Length of depressed sewer 100 m (328 ft)
■ Maximum sewer deression 2.44 m (8 ft)
■ Design flows:
minimum flow 0.079 m3/s (2.8 ft3/s)
average flow 0.303 m3/s (10.7 ft3/s) maximum dry-weather flow
full (maximum) flow capacity of gravity sanitary sewer
■ Design three inverted siphons from the inlet chamber
(1) to carry minimum flow
(2) to carry flows from minimum to average
(3) to carry all flows above the average flow
■ Available fall from invert to invert 1.0 m (3.3 ft)
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■Available head loss at inlet 125 mm (0.5 ft)
■ Available head loss for friction in depressed sewer 1.0 m (3.3 ft)
■ Available hydraulic grade line 1 m/100 m 0.01 m/m
■ n 0.015 (ductile-iron pipe)
Note: The above information is required to design a depressed sewer
system.

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