Conducting Qualitative

Research
Dr. A. A. Dean
Today’s Lecture

• What is Qualitative Research?

• Why do we use Qualitative Research?
• Types of Qualitative Research?
• How do we analyse the data collected?
 Qualitative Research
Phenomenology
Why undert Grounded Theory
ake Qualita Narrative Research
What is Qualitati tive Resear Case Study
ve Research: Ph ch
Ethnographic Research
enomenology
Pilot
Testing
Qualitative
Research Sampling:
Ethics of Purposive
Qualitative
Research
Qualitative Research
Analysing
Instruments
MEMOS Qualitative 1. Semi-in depth Interview Schedul
e
Research: 2. Observation criteria
Coding; 3. CIT (narrative)
4. Thematic Apperception Tests
Links; 5. Word Assocation
Themes; 6. Online Qualitative Research
Discussions (posts / tweets)
Qualitative Research: What does it mean?

• Study of words, meaning

(Phenomenology)
• Either from past text, literature,
newspapers, dialogues (electronic –
MSN)
• Or collected data from Interviews
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Qualitative methods do not measure the “amount” of emotion or
opinion, but they may give an indication of the dominant feelings and
thoughts.
Marshall et al (1999, p.3) outline the following
key characteristics of qualitative research:

• Takes place in the natural world

• Uses multiple methods that are interactive
• Is emergent rather than tightly prefigured
Why do we use Qualitative Research?

• To gain an understanding of reasons for

behaviour
• To gain new insights
• To contribute to theoretical knowledge
How do we start a Qualitative Project?

• Develop a Research Problem (this is a specific purpose of what

you intend to investigate and what you hope to learn from the
investigation)

• Identify key (interview) questions you will ask respondents. Are

they interrogative? Do you need probing questions?

• Extract interview questions from the Literature, Clients,

Insights, etc
Pilot testing questions
evaluate each question in terms of:
 
•Do they make sense to the interviewee? (i.e. are they meaningful to them)
•Are they related to the interviewee's experiences?
•Are there are any ethical or confidentiality issues to any of the questions?
•Do the questions help the flow of the interview interaction?
•Do the questions ensure an appropriate focus on issues and topics relevant to the
authors research questions?
Mason (1996, p.45)
 The most common methods of recording are:

• Writing down information verbatim, in

summary or in key words,
• Tape-recording conversations – can listen to
interviews later to gain further insight,
• Video-recording events,
• Taking photographs.

(Sarantakos, 1998, p214)

Types of Qualitative Research

1. Semi-in depth Interview Schedule

2. Focus group
3. Observation
4. Delphi Technique
5. Online Qualitative Research
1. Open-ended Interview
Schedule

• The goal of interviews is to collect information about

people’s experiences, opinions, attitudes and feelings
(May, 1997, p108).

• Start with general questions

• Avoid too many mono-syllabic response questions
• Categorise your questions into themes (people like to
answer questions with a logical order)
• Don’t be afraid to add new questions (during the
interview)
Contd...
In-depth interviews

Non-directive/ semi-structured/
Unstructured focused
Respondent given maximum Follows specific list of topics or
freedom to provide personal areas that respondents are urged
opinions, perceptions and to respond
thoughts

Laddering, projective techniques

& symbolic analysis are often use
for facilitation purposes
Example of Interview Schedule
Customer
Q.1) Does your company have a customer
loyalty scheme?

Yes [ ] No [ ]

Q.2) What are the benefits of a customer

loyalty scheme?
The five main advantages of interviews are:

1. Flexibility
2. High response rate
3. Depth of information
4. More control
5. Opportunity for
clarification
The main five disadvantages if interviews are:

1. Costly
2. Time-consuming
3. Difficult to analyse data
4. Interviewer bias
5. Invasion of privacy
2. Focus Groups
• The purpose of focus group is to “stimulate an in-depth
exploration of a topic about which little is known” (Bickman and
Rog, 1998, p505).

• Group size: 8-12

• Group composition: Homogenous or Heterogeneous (if wider
discussion required), respondents pre-screened
• Physical setting: Relaxed, informal setting
• Time duration: 1 - 3 hours
• Recording: Use of audio and video cassettes
• Moderator: Observational, interpersonal, good communication
skills needed.
Role of the moderator
• Success of focus groups depend on them;
• They must strive for generating a stimulating natural
discussion without losing sight of the focus;
• Must take initiative, but should not dominate the
discussion unduly;
• Should have feeling of urgency;
• Should participate in the research from the beginning;
• Must add value beyond just conducting the session.
Ways to recruit the sample for a focus group

• Participants can be recruited in a variety of ways

including

• lists or directories,
• through cooperating organisations,
• by telephone screening,
• or “on location” at an event

• (Krueger, 1988, p101).

Conducting a Focus Group Interview
• Step 1: Make sure questions have been pilot tested
• Step 2: Is the group membership representative and
focused (6-8max)
• Step 3: introduce yourself
• Step 4: Clarify purpose of this focus group and how
results will be used and fed back to respondents
• Step 5: Explain why people were selected
• Step 6: Clarify confidentiality of meeting
Cont:
• Step 7: Encourage people to be open and
honest with their views
• Step 8: Invite group to write down their views
to a selection of questions posted
around the room e.g.
q.1 This company’s management is….
• Step 9: Use the comments provided as starting point
for discussion
• Step 10: Discuss other themed questions that initial
research deemed important.
The five main advantages of focus group are:

1. Large amounts of rich data

collected
2. Inexpensive
3. Focus on the most important
topics
4. Spontaneity
5. Flexible
The five main disadvantages of focus group are:

1. Risk of domination by one

person
2. Difficulty to research sensitive
topics
3. Difficulties to analyse data
4. Need expertise
5. Confidentiality can be a problem
3. Delphi Study
• Seeking experts for their View
• Testing Expert Views
• Developing Model
• Discussing model with experts
4. Observation
• Observation is used to study in detail the behaviour that occurs in
some particular setting (Bailey, 1994, P242).

• There are two main types of observation: participant and non-

participant

• As far as the participant observation is concerned, the observer

immerses himself or herself in a group for a long period of time,
observes behaviours and asks questions (Bryman, 1988, p291).

• The main advantages of observation are that it collects information

about nonverbal behaviour in a natural environment.

• However, the disadvantages are that observations cannot provide

information about the past or the future and the lack of control.
 Different types of participant observation

Participant-as-
observer

Complete Observer-as-
Gold
participation participant

Complete
observer
The five main advantages of participant observation
are:

1. Flexibility
2. Natural setting
3. Validity of findings to a
particular setting
4. Holistic
5. Subject’s point of view
The five main disadvantages of participant observation
are:

1. Access
2. Commitment
3. Reliability
4. Representativeness
5. Deception
Exploratory Interviews using Social Media
• Facebook chat rooms

• LinkedIn discussions

• Twitter feeds

• Whatsapp group chat

Thematic Apperception Tests
Analysing Qualitative Data
Analysing DATA

• Qualitative DATA - NVivo

Six Phases to analysing Qualitative Data
(Marshall et al., 1999, p.152)

1. Organising Data
2. Generating categories, themes,, and patterns
3. Coding the Data
4. Testing the emergent understandings
5. Searching for alternative explanations
6. Writing the report
Nine Phases to analysing Qualitative
Data (Dean)
1. Review the Responses to each Question
2. Code the Responses to each question
3. Identify similar codes in each question
4. Create themes to segment similar codes
5. Identify Links between questions based on codes /
themes
6. Identify opposite links between the codes /
themes
7. Test the emergent understandings
8. Search for alternative explanations
9. Write the report
Qualitative Analysis: Radial diagrams
Interview Transcript
 Codes and Themes

THEME PAGE RESPONDENTS

Category Code #
I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8
Emotions Good Feeling 23
Unsafe Feeling 47
Uneasy Feeling 41
Coolness 56
 Providing a summary of the qualitative
findings
Concept Short description Importance of the concept Effect of the concept Typical Reference
(alpha- (Based on the frequency of (Whether the concept tends to quotations
betic occurrences in the lead towards acceptance or
order) interviews) towards resistance of ADAS)
Emotions Affective responses, Aver Slightly less than half of Acceptance The affective “I feel much better Code #23,
referring to feelings all respondents and/or responses expressed and safer with these interview 12
and emotions which
-age expressed emotions or resistance positive as well as systems”
come up intuitively feelings in relation to negative feelings
without an immediate ADAS during the towards ADAS. “As a passenger I Code #47,
rational explanation. interview. Positive emotions are, would clearly feel interview 24
however, much more unsafe
predominating. […]”

Enjoyment Enjoyment refers to High
of Driving various personal
motives other than
transportation (non-
functional motives),
such as sensory
stimulation,
excitement or self-
expression.
This concept was Resistance Advanced Driver- “I enjoy driving too Code #27,
mentioned by more Assistance Systems much to use these interview 16
than half of all are perceived as assistance systems”
respondents. supplanting manual
driving tasks, which
respondents prefer to
fulfil themselves.

Loss of Loss of Control High This concept was Resistance The prospect of “Fear of losing control Code #6,
Control expresses the belief mentioned by about two handing over control to over the vehicle” interview 17
that ADAS is taking thirds of the an assistance system
away personal respondents, some of has consistently Code #34,
freedom and thus whom brought it up emerged as a major “Taking away interview 29
creating a form of multiple times. reason for resistance personal freedom”
technological towards ADAS.
paternalism.
Matrix Colour Coding of
RESULTS
Visualisation of qualitative findings (themes & codes)
― Comfort Benefit
― Reduction of Driving Strain
― Perceived Usefulness
― Good Feeling ― Technical Gadget
― Unsafe Feeling ― Ability to Support Driving
― Uneasy Feeling ― Technological Proliferation
― Coolness ― Safety Benefit
― Support for Highway Driving
― Support for Elderly
― Support for City Driving
― Increased Traffic Law Conformity
― Ease of Use ― Support for Handicapped Persons
― Customisation with System ― Possibility of Drunk- or Tired-Driving
― Risk of Human Error
― Usefulness for Job-related Driving

― Trust in Technology
― Trust in Own Driving Skills Perceived
Perceived ― Past Experiences
― Trust in Computer Ease of Use
Usefulness ― Familiarisation with
― Trust in Brands
― Technology
Emotions ― Lack of Knowledge

+ Past Experiences
+/- +
Trust
+/- +/-
Intention
to use Subjective
Norms
-
ADAS
+/-
― Subjective
Technological Standard

Enjoyment
- ― Social Obligation
― Social Influence
of Driving - - ― Societal Need due to
Loss of Control Increase in Traffic

Perceived Risks Resources

― Enjoyment of Driving
― Conformity with Driving Style
― Loss of Control
― Irreplaceability of Human Driver
― Technological Paternalism
― Dependency on Systems
― Risk of Failure
― Technical Immaturity ― Price
― Fear of Excessive Warnings ― Value for Money
― Responsibility ― Limited Availability
― Artificial Feeling of Being Protected ― Risk of Increased Repair Costs
― Risk of Decreased Driving Skills
― Risk of Distraction
― Uncertainty in Driving Situations
― Risk of Becoming Careless
― Reliability
― Increased Driving Complexity
― Risk of Wrong Operation of System
Analysing Data
Analysing DATA

• Questionnaire DATA – SPSS

• Qualitative DATA - NVivo

 What is NVivo?
 A software package for organising, analysing and sharing data
 Developed by QSR (www.qsrinternational.com) – video tutorials, QSR forum,
FAQs, training and support
 Staff and PhD students – access on University PCs/laptops
 Off-site personal PC/laptops – purchase the package @ £370/£78 student
download rate - or 30 days free trial available www.qsrinternational.com
 NVivo and qualitative research – many qualitative researchers are interested
in evaluating, interpreting and explaining social phenomena
 Qualitative researchers analyse unstructured or semi-structured data like
interviews, surveys, field notes, web pages and journal articles – and they
work in a range of sectors, from social science and education to healthcare
and business
(taken from NVivo 10, ‘Getting Started’, QSR International)
How can NVivo help you with your research?
• NVivo can help you to manage, explore and find patterns in
your data – it can help you organise unstructured information
from a number of sources
• Qualitative research focuses on the questions of ‘how’ and
‘why’ - qualitative research is an iterative process – using
NVivo can help you to identify and classify themes and ideas
• NVivo does not do the analysis of the data for you …
• You need to INTERPRET the meaning of the data….the
software will help you with this process.. but it does not do it
for you
Example of Analysed Qualitative Data
Frequency Counts
Smoking
Should show affects of
obesity Links between themes
Cartoons good visuals

Does not target them

Informative

Doesn't stand out

Can't relate to cartoons

Eyecatching

Light hearted / Fun

Basic / Things you already
know
Would not motivate

Would motivate

Would Ignore

Builds Awareness

Childish

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Key Quotes
Healthy ‘I wouldn’t completely ignore it but I wouldn’t pay that much interest. I like
hard hitting messages’ ‘This just looks like a jelly baby advert’ (Participant
2)

Unhealthy If they started showing people dying and a rotten heart advertisement or
livers that have been pummelled by alcohol I think people think more
about it’ (Participant 3)
Recommended Books
• Myers, M. D. (2009), Qualitative Research in Business and Management.
London: Sage.

• Jackson, K and Bazeley, P. (2019) Qualitative Data Analysis with Nvivo

• Dey, I. (1993), Qualitative Data Analysis: A User Friendly Guide for Social
Scientists, Routledge: London

• Silverman, D. (2001) Interpreting Qualitative Data: Methods for Analysing Talk,

Text and Interaction, 2nd Edition, London: Sage.
Seminar Activity
• Develop a list of interview questions on ‘unethical behaviour of
managers’ and compare this with your insights with ‘unethical
academic behaviour of students’.

• Discuss the questions with your groups identifying key patterns of

responses.

• What have you learnt?