1EEPE316 Electric Vehicles and Smart Grid

Unit 2
Propulsion Systems
 Classification of IC Engines

1.Based on number of strokes per cycle

2. Based on thermodynamic cycle used
3. Based on number of cylinders used
4. Based on arrangement of cylinders
5. Based on ignition system
6. Based on cooling system
7. Based on fuel used
8. Based on fuel supply system
9. Based on lubrication system
S. I Engine
Working of 4 Stroke S. I Engines or Petrol Engines
• The working principle of 4 stroke SI engine is based on the principle
developed by German Engineer, Otto in 1862
• The working fuel for this engine is petrol or gas
• 4 strokes are completed in two revolution of crankshaft
• The series of operation of engine are shown in fig.

1] Suction Stroke:
• During this stroke the inlet valve remains opened and exhaust valve
remains closed and the mixture of fuel and air called charge is
drawn during piston movement from T.D.C to B.D.C. it is
represented by process (0-1)
• The piston has now made one stroke during the 180 degree of
crankshaft rotation
2] Compression Stroke:
• During this stroke inlet and exhaust valve both remains closed

• Piston moves from B.D.C to T.D.C and charge is compressed upto

its clearance value. Compression process is represented by process
(1-2)

• During the process the pressure and temperature of mixture rises.

Just before the end of compression stroke, the mixture is ignited
with help of spark plug and due to release of chemical energy of
fuel, the temperature and pressure of mixture further rises. It is
represented by (2-3)
3] Expansion or power stroke:
• During this stroke inlet and exhaust valve both remains closed and
the piston moves from TDC to BDC. The expansion process is
represented by process (3-4)
• High pressure and temperature gases push down the piston to create
the motive power

4] Exhaust Stroke:
• During this stroke, the inlet valve remains closed and exhaust valve
is opened.
• Piston moves from BDC to TDC and during this motion, the piston
pushes out the burnt gases from the cylinder.
• Heat rejected is represented by process (4-1) and exhaust process (1-
0)
• The exhaust valve closes at the end of the stroke and a part of burnt
gases called residual gases remains in the clearance space. Again the
inlet valve opens and new cycle starts
Working of 4 Stroke C. I Engine or Diesel Engine
• The working of compression ignition engine is based on the engine
designed by German engineer Rudolf Diesel in 1892 using high
compression ration
• The working of diesel engine is similar to petrol engine working on
Otto cycle except that in case of CI engines the air is only drawn
during its suction stroke instead of mixture of fuel and air drawn in
case of SI engine
• In case of CI engine the fuel is injected into cylinder before the end
of compression stroke under very high pressure
• The working fluid of CI engine is diesel and it operates on diesel
cycle.
• The compression ratio used for diesel engine varies from 14 to 20
1] Suction Stroke:
• During this stroke, inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve remains
closed. Only the air is inducted during the suction stroke
• Piston moves from TDC to BDC during the stroke

2] Compression Stroke:
• Both inlet valve and exhaust valve remains closed. The air sucked
during suction stroke is compressed upto its clearance volume
• Piston moves from BDC to TDC during the stroke
3] Expansion or Power Stroke
• Though the fuel injection starts nearly at the end of compression
stroke, but the rate of injection of fuel in such combustion maintains
the pressure constant
• Due to combustion of fuel, heat is assumed to be added at constant
pressure.
• After the injection of fuel is over, the product of combustion expand
during piston movement from TDC to BDC.
• Both the inlet and exhaust valve continues to remain closed
4] Exhaust Stroke:
• Exhaust valve opens and inlet valve remains closed.
• The piston traveling from BDC to TDC pushes out the combustion
gases
• Since diesel engine uses very high compression ratio, the
temperature of the air at the end of compression stroke is very high
and it is sufficient to self ignite the fuel
• Due to this, in case of CI engine a spark plug is not needed. The
method of ignition of fuel is called auto ignition
 Comparison between 4 stroke and 2 stroke engines

Sr. Aspect 4 Stroke Engine 2 Stroke

No Engine
1 Completion of cycle Cycle is completed in 4 Cycle is
strokes of piston or in completed in 2
two revolutions of strokes of piston
crankshaft or in one
revolutions of
crankshaft

2 Power produced for Less High

same cylinder
dimension and speed
3 Thermal efficiency High Low since some
fresh charge
escapes during
seaverging
Sr. No Aspects 4 Stroke Engine 2 Stroke Engine
4 Volumetric Efficiency High due to more time Low due to less
of induction time of induction
5 Initial cost and space Occupies more space Occupies less
requirement and costly due to space and cheaper
complicated valve
mechanism
6 Starting Complicated Easy
arrangement is needed
7 Noise Less More
8 Cooling Less cooling and More cooling and
lubrication is required lubrication is
required since it
has 1 power
stroke per
revolution of
crankshaft
Electric Drives

Electric propulsion systems are at the heart of electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid
electric vehicles (HEVs).

 They consist of electric motors, power converters, and electronic controllers. The electric motor
converts the electric energy into mechanical energy to propel the vehicle, or, vice versa,

 To enable regenerative braking and/or to generate electricity for the purpose of charging the
onboard energy storage.

 The power converter is used to supply the electric motor with proper voltage and current. The
electronic controller commands the power converter by providing control signals to it, and then
controls the operation of the electric motor to produce proper torque and speed, according to
the command from the drive.

 The electronic controller can be further divided into three functional units — sensor, interface
circuitry, and processor. The sensor is used to translate measurable quantities such as current,
voltage, temperature, speed, torque, and flux into electric signals through the interface
circuitry. These signals are conditioned to the appropriate level before being fed into the
processor. The processor output signals are usually amplified via the interface circuitry to drive
power semiconductor devices of the power converter.
 Functional block diagram of a typical electric propulsion system

Classification of electric motor drives for EV and HEV applications

 DC Motor Drives
DC motor drives have been widely used in applications requiring adjustable
speed, good speed regulation, and frequent starting, braking and reversing.
Various DC motor drives have been widely applied to different electric traction
applications because of their technological maturity and control simplicity

FIGURE 6.3
Operation principle of a DC motor
 FIGURE 6.4
Wound-field DC motors

FIGURE 6.6
Speed characteristics of DC motors
Combined Armature Voltage and Field Control

𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝑁=
∅
Flux Control
Armature Control
Torque

Power

Armature current

0
Base speed Maximum speed m

Armature Field control

voltage control

Torque and power limitations in combined

armature voltage and field control
Chopper Control of DC Motors

CLASS- A Chopper https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UtByxfibJnc

Forward motoring

Principle of operation of a step down (or class A)

chopper: (a) basic chopper circuit; (b) to (e) waveforms
 During the on interval of the switch (0 t δT) , the load is subjected to a voltage V and
the load current increases from ia1 to ia2.

 The switch is opened at t δT. During the off period of the switch (δT t 1) , the load
inductance maintains the flow of current through diode D F.

 The load terminal voltage remains zero (if the voltage drop on the diode is ignored
in comparison to V) and the current decreases from i a2 to ia1.

 The internal 0 t δT is called the duty interval and the interval δT t T is known as the
freewheeling interval.

 Diode DF provides a path for the load current to flow when switch S is off, and thus
improves the load current waveform.

 Furthermore, by maintaining the continuity of the load current at turn off, it

prevents transient voltage from appearing across switch S, due to the sudden change
of the load current

By controlling δ between 0 and 1, the load voltage can be varied from 0 to V; thus,
a chopper allows a variable DC voltage to be obtained from a fixed voltage DC
source.
CLASS- B Chopper https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKA2UUqn9F0

Forward braking
 The circuit diagram and steady-state waveforms of a step-up chopper are shown in
Figure. This chopper is known as a class B chopper.

 The presence of control signal ic indicates the duration for which the switch can
conduct if forward-biased. During a chopping period T, it remains closed for an
interval 0 t δT and remains open for an interval δT t T.

 During the on period, iS increases from iS1 to iS2, thus increasing the magnitude of
energy stored in inductance L. When the switch is opened, current flows through the
parallel combination of the load and capacitor C.

 Since the current is forced against the higher voltage, the rate of change of the
current is negative. It decreases from iS2 to iS1 in the switch’s off period.

 The energy stored in the inductance L and the energy supplied by the low-voltage
source are given to the load. The capacitor C serves two purposes.

 At the instant of opening of switch S, the source current, i S, and load current, ia, are
not the same. In the absence of C, the turn off of S will force the two currents to have
the same values.

 This will cause high induced voltage in the inductance L and the load inductance.
Another reason for using capacitor C is to reduce the load voltage ripple. The purpose
of the diode D is to prevent any flow of current from the load into switch S or source
V.
 Multi-quadrant Control of Chopper-Fed DC Motor Drives
Class C Two-Quadrant Chopper- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=donFBlb1Hsg

is

ic 1 S 1
D 2

+ ia
V
− S
ic 2 +
2
D 1 V a

−
(a )

Forward motoring and regenerative

braking control using class C two-
quadrant chopper: ( a) chopper circuit
and (b) waveforms
 In some applications, a smooth transition from motoring to braking and vice
versa is required. For such applications, the class C chopper is used as shown
in Figure.

 The self-commutated semiconductor switch S1 and diode D1 constitute one

chopper and the self-commutator switch S2 and diode D2 form another
chopper.

 Both the choppers are controlled simultaneously, both for motoring and
regenerative braking. The switches S1 and S2 are closed alternately.

 In the chopping period T, S1 is kept on for a duration δT, and S2 is kept on

from δT to T. To avoid a direct short-circuit across the source, care is taken
to ensure that S1 and S2 do not conduct at the same time.

 This is generally achieved by providing some delay between the turn off of
one switch and the turn on of another switch.

 The waveforms of the control signals va ia, and is and the devices under
conducting during different intervals of a chopping period are shown in
 Four-Quadrant Operation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u246YFLtSkc

Class E four-quadrant chopper

The four-quadrant operation can be obtained by combining two class C choppers as

shown in Figure, which is referred to as a class E chopper. In this chopper, if S 2 is kept
closed continuously and S1 and S4 are controlled, a two-quadrant chopper is obtained,
which provides positive terminal voltage (positive speed) and the armature current in
either direction (positive or negative torque), giving a motor control in quadrants I
and IV. Now if S3 is kept closed continuously and S1 and S4 are controlled, one obtains a
two-quadrant chopper, which can supply a variable negative terminal voltage
(negative speed) and the armature current can be in either direction (positive or
negative torque), giving a motor control in quadrants II and III.
 INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE

Advantages:-
It has simple and rugged construction.
It is relatively cheap.
It requires little maintenance.
It has high efficiency and reasonably good power factor.
It has self starting torque.

Disadvantages:-
It is essentially a constant speed motor and its speed cannot be changed easily.
Its starting torque is inferior to D.C. shunt motor.

FIGURE
Cross-section of an induction motor
3-phase induction motor has two main parts
(i) Stator (ii) Rotor.
The rotor is separated from the stator by a small air-gap which ranges from 0.4 mm
to 4 mm, depending on the power of the motor.
1.Stator- It consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow, cylindrical core made up of thin
laminations of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses.
2. Rotor –
The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a hollow laminated core having slots on its outer periphery. The
winding placed in these slots (called rotor winding) may be one of the following two types:
(i) Squirrel cage type (ii)Slip-Ring / Wound type

3.Frame 5.Stator & Rotor Core

4.Stator & Rotor Winding 6.Shaft & Bearings
5.Fans 7.Slip-rings & Slip-ring enclosures
Basic Operation Principles of Induction Motors
Figure shows, schematically, a cross section of the stator of a three phase, two-pole induction motor.
Each phase is fed with a sinusoidal AC current, which has a frequency of ω and a 120º phase
difference between each other as shown in Figure . Current i as, ibs, and ics in the three stator coils a–a ,
b–b , and c–c produce alternative mmfs, Fas, Fbs, and Fcs, which are space vectors. The resultant stator
mmf vector Fss, constitutes a vector sum of the phase mmf vectors.
The mmfs produced by the phase currents can be written as

i as i bs i cs

(a) (b)
FIGURE
Induction motor stator and stator winding current: (a) spatially symmetric three-phase stator
windings; (b) phase currents
FIGURE Torque–slip characteristics of an induction motor with fixed stator frequency and voltage Constant
Volt/Hertz Control
 When motor speed is beyond its rated speed, the voltage reaches its rated value and cannot be increased with the
frequency. In this case, the voltage is fixed to its rated value and the frequency continuously increases with the
motor speed. The motor goes into the field weakening operation. The slip s is fixed to its rated value corresponding
to the rated frequency, and the slip speed ωsl increases linearly with motor speed. This control approach results in
constant power operation as shown in Figure

FIGURE
Operating variables varying with motor speed
Constant Volt/Hertz Control
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DiKcKYbJ1A4
For traction application, the torque–speed characteristic of an induction
motor can be varied by simultaneously controlling the voltage and
frequency, which is known as constant volt/hertz control. By emulating a
DC motor at low speed, the flux may be kept constant.

FIGURE General configuration of constant V/f control

DC/AC inverter with sinusoidal PWM: (a) inverter topology; (b) control signals; (c) three phase
reference voltage and a common isosceles triangular carrier wave; (d) voltage of phase a; (e)
voltage of phase b; and (f) voltage of phase https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DiKcKYbJ1A4
Field Oriented Control

The aim of FOC is to maintain the stator field perpendicular to the rotor field so as to
always produce the maximum torque as in DC motors. However, for induction motors,
phase voltages are the only accesses for the purpose of control .

The general block diagram of a vector control system for an induction motor drive is shown
in Figure. A field orientation system produces reference signals i as* , ibs* , and ics* of the stator
currents, based on the input reference values, λ *r and T*, of the rotor flux and motor torque,
respectively, and the signals corresponding to selected variables of the motor. An inverter
supplies the motor currents, ias, ibs, and ics, such that their waveforms follow the reference
waveform, i * , i * , and i * .
BLDC Motor Drives
A BDLC motor drive consists mainly of the brush-less DC machine, a DSP based controller, and a
power electronics-based power converter, as shown in Figure Position sensors H1, H2, and H3 sense
the position of the machine rotor. The rotor position information is fed to the DSP-based controller,
which, in turn, supplies gating signals to the power converter by turning on and turning off the proper
stator pole windings of the machine. In this way, the torque and speed of the machines are controlled.

S
N S
N
S N

N S S N

N S
N
S N
S

(a) (b)

BLDC Motor Drive Cross-sectional view of the permanent

magnet rotor: (a) surface-mounted PM
rotor and ( b) interior-mounted PM rotor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCEiOnuO
Dac
 DC supply

Three-Phase BLDC
Load
inverter motor

Gating

Commanded signals

I *
torque T * s
Current controller and

commutation sequencer Position

sensor

Block diagram of the torque control of the BLDC motor

Block diagram of the speed control of the BLDC motor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZAY5JInyHXY
 Sensor less Techniques
The position sensor is usually either a three-element Hall-effect sensor or an optical
encoder. These position sensors are high-cost, fragile elements. Thus, their presence
not only enhances the cost of the motor drive but also seriously lowers its reliability
and limits its application in some environments, such as a military one.
1. Those using measured currents, voltages, fundamental machine equations, and
algebraic manipulations

This method consists of two subtypes: (1) those that calculate the flux linkages using measured voltages and
currents and (2) those that utilize a model’s prediction of a measurable voltage or current, compare the model’s
value with the actual measured voltage or current, and calculate the change in position, proportional to the
difference between the measured and actual voltage or current.
2. Those using observers

These methods determine the rotor position and/or speed using observers. The first
of these considered are those utilizing the well-known Kalman filter as a position
estimator. One of the first of these to appear in the printed literature was by M.
Schroedl in 1988. In his many publications, Schroedl utilized various methods of
measuring system voltages and currents, which could produce rough estimates of the
angular rotor position. The Kalman filtering added additional refinements to the first
estimates of position and speed. Other observer-based systems include those
utilizing nonlinear, full-order, and sliding-mode observers
 3. Those using back EMF methods

Using back EMF sensing is the majority approach in sensorless control technology of the BLDC motor
drive. This approach consists of several methods, such as (1) terminal voltage sensing method, (2)
third-harmonic back EMF sensing method, (3) freewheeling diode conduction, and (4) back EMF
integration.

4. Those with novel techniques not falling into the previous three categories.

The following sensorless methods are completely original and unique. These range from artificial intelligence
methods to variations in the machine structure. The first of the novel methods to be considered are those
utilizing artificial intelligence, that is, artificial neural networks (ANN) and fuzzy logic. In reference,39 they utilized a
neural network using the back-propagation training algorithm (BPN) to act as a nonlinear function
implementation between measured phase voltages and currents, which were inputs, and rotor position, which
was the output. Using the equations in the above method, the flux linkage can be calculated using the measured
voltages, currents, and system parameters.
SRM Motor Drives

Cross-section of common SRM

configurations: (a) a 6/4 SRM and
(b) a 8/6 SRM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=vvw6k4ppUZU

SRM and its power supply

SRM drive system
T

Constant Constant
Natural
torque power

0 Base speed

Torque–speed characteristic of SRM

Torque Production
Idealized inductance, current, and torque profiles of the
SRM
Sensor Less Control

1. Phase flux linkage-based method

2. Phase inductance-based method
3. Modulated signal injected methods
4. Mutual-induced voltage-based method
5. Observer-based methods.