Evolutionary Change in

Populations

Chapter 19
 Learning Objective 1

• What is a population’s gene pool?

 Population

• All individuals living in a particular place at

the same time

• Population gene pool

• all alleles for all loci present in population
 KEY CONCEPTS
• All alleles of all loci of a population
constitute its gene pool
 Population Genetics

• Study of genetic variability in a population

• and forces that act on it
 Learning Objective 2

• What is the relationship between

genotype, phenotype, and allele
frequencies?
• Genotype frequency
• proportion of a genotype in the population

• Phenotype frequency
• proportion of a phenotype in the population

• Allele frequency
• proportion of an allele of a given genetic locus
in the population
Genotype and
Allele
Frequencies

Segregation of
Alleles
Genotypes AA Aa aa

Frequency of 0.49 0.42 0.09

genotypes in (0.21 + 0.21)
population

Frequency of
alleles in A = 0.49 + 0.21 a = 0.21 + 0.09
gametes = 0.7 = 0.3

Fig. 19-1a, p. 414

 Allele frequencies in
female gametes

A a

p = 0.7 q = 0.3

AA Aa

A p2 = 0.7 × 0.7 pq = 0.7 × 0.3

Allele frequencies in

= 0.49 = 0.21
male gametes

p = 0.7

Aa aa

a pq = 0.7 × 0.3 q2 = 0.3 × 0.3

= 0.21 = 0.09
q = 0.3

Fig. 19-1b, p. 414

 KEY CONCEPTS
• A population’s genotype, phenotype, and
allele frequencies can be calculated
 Learning Objective 3

• What is the significance of the Hardy–

Weinberg principle as it relates to
evolution?

• List five conditions required for genetic

equilibrium
 Hardy–Weinberg Principle

• Allele and genotype frequencies do not

change from generation to generation in a
population at genetic equilibrium

• (no evolution is occurring)

 Hardy–Weinberg Principle
• Applies only if
• mating is random in population
• no net mutations change allele frequencies
• population is large
• individuals don’t migrate between populations
• natural selection does not occur
 Learning Objective 4

• Use the Hardy–Weinberg principle to solve

problems involving populations
 Hardy–Weinberg Equation

p +q =1

• p = frequency of dominant allele

• q = frequency of recessive allele
 Genotype Frequencies
of a Population

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

• p2 = frequency of homozygous dominant

genotype
• 2pq = frequency of heterozygous genotype
• q2 = frequency of the homozygous recessive
genotype
 KEY CONCEPTS
• The Hardy–Weinberg principle predicts
allele and genotype frequencies for a
population that is not evolving
Animation: How to Find Out if a
Population is Evolving

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 Learning Objective 5

• What is microevolution?
 Microevolution

• Change in allele or genotype frequencies

within a population over successive
generations
 KEY CONCEPTS
• Microevolution is a change in a
population’s allele or genotype frequencies
over successive generations
 Learning Objective 6
• How does each of the following
microevolutionary forces alter allele
frequencies in populations?
• nonrandom mating
• mutation
• genetic drift
• gene flow
• natural selection
 Nonrandom Mating (1)

• Individuals select mates based on

phenotype
• indirectly select corresponding genotypes
 Nonrandom Mating (2)
• Inbreeding
• mating of genetically similar individuals
• not chosen at random from entire population

• Inbreeding depression
• inbred individuals have lower fitness than
non-inbred individuals
Inbreeding Depression
 Nonrandom Mating (3)
• Assortative mating
• individuals select mates by phenotypes

• Inbreeding and assortative mating

• increase frequency of homozygous genotypes
 Mutations

• Unpredictable changes in DNA

• source of new alleles

• Increase genetic variability

• acted on by natural selection
 Genetic Drift (1)
• Random change in allele frequencies of a
small population

• Decreases genetic variation in population

• Changes caused by genetic drift are

usually not adaptive
 Genetic Drift (2)
• Bottleneck
• sudden decrease in population size caused
by adverse environmental factors

• Founder effect
• genetic drift that occurs when a small
population colonizes a new area
Founder Effect
 Gene Flow

• Movement of alleles caused by migration

of individuals between populations

• Causes changes in allele frequencies

 Natural Selection
• Causes changes in allele frequencies that
lead to adaptation

• Operates on an organism’s phenotype

• but changes genetic composition of
population to favor a particular environment
 KEY CONCEPTS
• Microevolutionary forces include
nonrandom mating, mutation, genetic drift,
gene flow, and natural selection
 Learning Objective 7

• What is the difference between stabilizing

selection, directional selection, and
disruptive selection?

• Give an example of each

 Modes of Selection
• Stabilizing selection
• favors the mean over phenotypic extremes

• Directional selection
• favors one phenotypic extreme over another,
causing shift in phenotypic mean

• Disruptive selection
• favors two or more phenotypic extremes
Modes of Selection
 No selection Stabilizing section Directional selection Disruptive selection
Number of individuals

Phenotype

Stepped Art

Fig. 19-4, p. 419

Stabilizing Selection
Animation: Directional Selection

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TO PLAY
Directional Selection
Animation: Stabilizing Selection

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TO PLAY
 KEY CONCEPTS
• Modes of natural selection include
stabilizing selection, directional selection,
and disruptive selection
Animation: Disruptive Selection

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TO PLAY
 Learning Objective 8

• What is the nature and extent of genetic

variation, including genetic polymorphism,
balanced polymorphism, neutral variation,
and geographic variation?
 Genetic Variation (1)
• Genetic polymorphism
• presence in a population of 2 or more alleles
for a given locus

• Balanced polymorphism
• a special type of genetic polymorphism
• 2 or more alleles persist in a population over
many generations due to natural selection
 Genetic Variation (2)
• Heterozygote advantage
• occurs when the heterozygote exhibits greater
fitness than either homozygote

• Frequency-dependent selection
• a genotype’s selective value varies with its
frequency of occurrence
Heterozygote Advantage
 Europe
Asia

Africa

Atlantic Indian Ocean

Ocean

Australia

Fig. 19-7a, p. 423

 Europe
Asia

Africa

Atlantic Indian Ocean

Ocean

Frequency of Hbs allele Australia

1–10%
10 –20%

Fig. 19-7b, p. 423

Frequency-Dependent Selection
 Cichlid with
right-pointing
mouth attacks
prey on its left
flank.

Cichlid with
left-pointing
mouth attacks
prey on its
right flank.
Fig. 19-8a, p. 423
 Frequency of cichlid individuals
with left-pointing mouths

Sample years

Fig. 19-8b, p. 423

 Genetic Variation (3)

• Neutral variation
• genetic variation that provides no detectable
selective advantage
 Genetic Variation (4)
• Geographic variation
• genetic variation among different populations
within the same species

• Cline
• gradual change in species’ phenotype and
genotype frequencies
• through a series of geographically separate
populations
Clinal Variation
 Yarrow
(Achillea
millefolium)
Fig. 19-9a, p. 424
yarrow plants (cm)
100
Mean height of

50

0
Groveland Mather Aspen Yosemite Tenaya Tuolumne Big Timberline Conway Lee
Valley Creek Lake Meadows Horn Summit Vining
Lake
4000
Elevation (m)

3000

2000

1000

Sierra Nevada Range Great Basin Plateau

Fig. 19-9b, p. 424

Animation: Change in Moth
Population

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TO PLAY