Applied Research Methods

Dr. Kamran Ahmed Soomro

Assistant Professor, Faculty of Management Sciences, SZABIST
dr.kamran@szabist.edu.pk
 Chapter 6

Sampling and
Data Collection Techniques
 Sampling

• The process of selecting the right individuals, objects, or

events as representatives for the entire population
 Key Terms
• Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or things
of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate. It is the group
of people, events, or things of interest for which the researcher
wants to make inferences

• An element is a single member of the population

• A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises some

members selected from it. In other words, some, but not all,
elements of the population form the sample.
• The sampling unit is the element or set of elements that
is available for selection in some stage of the sampling
process. Examples of sampling units in a multistage
sample are city blocks, households, and individuals
within the households.

• A subject is a single member of the sample, just as an

element is a single member of the population.
 The Sampling Process
• Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number
of the right elements from the population, so that a
study of the sample and an understanding of its
properties or characteristics make it possible for us to
generalize such properties or characteristics to the
population elements.
 Steps in Sampling
1. Define the population.
2. Determine the sample frame.
3. Determine the sampling design.
4. Determine the appropriate sample size.
5. Execute the sampling process.
 Defining the population
• Sampling begins with precisely defining the target
population. The target population must be defined in
terms of elements, geographical boundaries, and time.
 Determining the sample frame
• The sampling frame is a (physical) representation of all
the elements in the population from which the sample is
drawn. The payroll of an organization would serve as the
sampling frame if its members are to be studied.
• Examples: university registry, telephone directory,
students attendance sheet, Population Census records
 Determining the sampling design
• Probability sampling: the elements in the population have some
known, nonzero chance or probability of being selected as
sample subjects.
• It is used when the representativeness of the sample is of
importance in the interests of wider generalizability.

• Nonprobability sampling: the elements do not have a known or

predetermined chance of being selected as subjects.
• When time or other factors, rather than generalizability, become
critical, nonprobability sampling is generally used
 Determining the sample size
1. The research objective.
2. The extent of precision desired
3. The acceptable risk in predicting that level of precision
(confidence level).
4. The amount of variability in the population itself.
5. The cost and time constraints (limitations).
6. In some cases, the size of the population itself.
 Nonprobability Sampling
• Convenience
• Also called haphazard or accidental sampling. The sampling
procedure of obtaining the people or units that are most
conveniently available

• Judgment
• Also called purposive sampling . An experienced individual
selects the sample based on his or her judgment about
some appropriate characteristics required of the sample
member
• Quota
• Ensures that the various subgroups in a population are
represented on pertinent sample characteristics to the
exact extent that the investigators desire
• Snowball
• A variety of procedures .
• Initial respondents are selected by probability methods
• Additional respondents are obtained from information
provided by the initial respondents
 Probability Sampling
• Simple Random Sampling
• A sampling procedure that ensures that each element in
the population will have an equal chance of being
included in the sample
• Systematic Sampling
• A simple process. Every nth name from the list will be
drawn
• Stratified Sampling
• Probability sample.
• Subsamples are drawn within different strata
• Each stratum is more or less equal on some characteristic

• Cluster Sampling
• The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample economically
while retaining the characteristics of a probability sample.
• The primary sampling unit is no longer the individual element
in the population .
• The primary sampling unit is a larger cluster of elements
located in proximity to one another
• Examples of Clusters:
• States, Counties, Metropolitan Statistical Area, Census
tracts, Blocks, Households, Airports
 Research strategies
• Experiment
• Experiments are usually associated with a hypothetico‐
deductive approach to research
• In an experiment, the researcher manipulates the
independent variable to study the effect of this
manipulation on the dependent variable
• Reward system-Productivity
 Survey research

• A survey is a system for collecting information from or

about people to describe, compare, or explain their
knowledge, attitudes, and behavior (Fink, 2003).
 Ethnography
• Ethnography is a research strategy that has its roots in
anthropology. It is a strategy in which the researcher
“closely observes, records, and engages in the daily life
of another culture and then writes accounts of this
culture, emphasizing descriptive detail”
 Case studies

• Case studies focus on collecting information about a

specific object, event or activity, such as a particular
business unit or organization.
• In case studies, the case is the individual, the group, the
organization, the event, or the situation the researcher
is interested in.
 Grounded theory

• Grounded theory is a systematic set of procedures to

develop an inductively derived theory from the data
(Strauss & Corbin, 1990).

• Important tools of grounded theory are theoretical

sampling, coding, and constant comparison.
 Action research

• Action research is sometimes undertaken by consultants

who want to initiate change processes in organizations.

• It is a constantly evolving project with interplay among

problem, solution, effects or consequences, and new
solution.
• Cross-sectional studies
• A study can be undertaken in which data are gathered
just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or
months, in order to answer a research question.
• Longitudinal studies
• To study people or phenomena at more than one point
in time in order to answer the research question
 Data Collection Methods
• Observation
• Survey Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Case Studies
• Focus Group Discussions