PRACTICAL

RESEARCH 3
Making the Research Design and
Determining the Research
Methodology
Objectives:
At the end of this lesson you will be able to:
• Define a research design
• Differentiate the two types of research design
• Differentiate the elements and parts of a research design
• Enumerate and explain different qualitative and quantitative
• Enumerate and explain different data-collection techniques
• Discuss other research methods and their procedures
• Explain sampling methods
• Develop a research design and methodology that explains how the data will be
collected, analyzed, and interpreted based on the type of research to be
undertaken.
• Obtain a representative sample from a larger population and infer a generalization
about the larger group from the smaller group being studied.
1

The Research Design

 A design is vital in any type of research.
This will be the indicator if a research activity
is in the right manner and direction toward
achieving your research goals.
 An effective research design sets a clear
direction using methods or techniques in
searching for answers to research questions
and in collecting research data.
 Important points that you have to consider in
developing the research design:
• Research topic
• Research objective
• Nature of the research
• Extent of researcher’s involvement in the research
• Research setting
• Research population and sample
• Time dimension of the research
2
Elements and Parts of a
Research Design
Elements and Parts of a Research Design
1. Research Design
• What is the most appropriate research design that you want to
explore?
 Qualitative Research
 Quantitative Research
 Mixed-methods
2. Research Objective
• What is the purpose or objective of the research that you want to
conduct?
 The objective is to explore another or a new problem or topic
 The objective is to provide an explanation or elaborate on a problem or
theory
Elements and Parts of a Research Design
3. Nature of the Research
• What is the nature of your research?
• What does the research want to examine?
 Causal research
 Correlational research
4. Extent of researcher’s involvement in research
• What will be the level of your involvement with the study that will
be done?
 The researcher will not be involved with the variables in the study
 The researcher will be involved with the variables in the study.
 There will be adjustment of variables to study the impact or effect of the
intervention on the dependent variable.
 There will be changes in the specific variables in the research setting
Elements and Parts of a Research Design
5. Research setting
• Will you develop an artificial research environment?
• If not, where are you going to conduct the research?
The research will be conducted in a normal setting.
The research will be conducted in a non-natural setting
where the situation will be created by the researcher.
6. Research population
• What is the population or groups of people that you will
observe, study, and analyze?
Elements and Parts of a Research Design
7. Research sample
• What is the sample or individual persons that you will
observe, study, and analyze?
8. Time dimension of the research
• What will be your specified time dimension to answer
your research questions?
Cross-sectional study
Longitudinal study
3
Qualitative
Research Design
 A qualitative research design is often used when
a concept or a phenomenon needs to be investigated
further because only a number of available researches
have been done recently. This research design is used
when you do not know the important variables to
examine.
Types of Qualitative Research
Case Study – requires in-depth exploration of activity, event
process, program, or individual or groups of individuals
• Requires gathering of detailed information using a
variety of collection procedures over a continuous and
consistent period of time.
Types of Qualitative Research
Ethnographic research – describes and interprets
beliefs and language system of cultural or social group
• Requires spending extensive time in setting being
studied
• Uses observations, interviews, and other
analyses to understand the nature of the culture
• Requires the researcher to participate in the
activities of the group.
Types of Qualitative Research
Grounded theory research – generates or discovers theory
or schema that relates to a specific environment.
• Involves a series of data-gathering procedures to
confirm or validate the information collected from the
research participants
• Data are collected through formal, informal, or semi-
structured interviews, as well as analyses or written
works, meeting proceedings, notes, phone calls, and
training sessions
Types of Qualitative Research
Historical study – an organized way of collecting and
evaluating information that includes artifacts,
documents, and stories to describe, explain, and
understand events that happened previously
• Gathers information about a specific historical event
• Requires gathering of detailed information using
biography or autobiography reading, documentary
analysis, and chronicling activities
Types of Qualitative Research
Phenomenological research – identifies the essence of
human experiences about a phenomenon as described by
research participants
• Involves investigating a small number of respondents
or subjects through extensive and extended
engagement to establish patterns and relationships
of meaning.
• Generates a universal description of a phenomenon
from its several individual contexts.
 Justify why critical thinking is required or not in
choosing what qualitative design is to be followed.
4
Quantitative
Research Designs
 Quantitative research design usually deals with
attitudes, opinions, and trends of population by investigating
a sample of that population. Based on the results obtained
from the sample, you can generalize or make inferences
about the population. You can also examine the effect or
impact of a treatment or intervention on an outcome and
take control of other factors that might influence that
outcome.
Types of Quantitative Research
Experimental research design – describes the outcome when variables
are carefully controlled or intentionally manipulated
• Experiments are conducted to address questions about cause and
effects.
• Involves two groups of subjects, namely the experimental group
(condition, intervention, or treatment is applied) and the control
group (no condition, intervention, or treatment is applied)
• Conducts two kinds of tests, namely, pretesting (test administered
prior to a specific treatment or intervention) and posttesting (test
administered after a specific treatment or intervention) of both
experimental and control group.
Types of Quantitative Research
Experimental research design
a. Quasi-experimental design – nonconformance to random
selection of participants or subjects to experimental
treatments
• Incapable of establishing cause and effect relationships
• Alternative to true experimental design if the researcher is not
capable of doing it.
• Incudes interrupted time-series design (pretesting and posttesting
of one group of subjects at different intervals) and pretest-posttest
non-equivalent group design (involves two different groups such as
experimental and comparison.
Types of Quantitative Research
Experimental research design
Types of Quantitative Research
Experimental research design
Types of Quantitative Research
Experimental research design
b. True experimental design – participants are randomly selected and
then randomly assigned to groups in the study
• The effect on the dependent variable is directly due to the manipulation
of the independent variable.
• Bias-free selection that warrants objectivity of results.
• Best option to investigate causal relationships
• Includes before-after-two-group design (pretest-posttest only design
where subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the
control group), factorial design (two or more independent variables are
presented in combination), randomized two-group design (two randomly
assigned groups such as experimental and control groups), and Solomon
four-group design (subjects are randomly assigned in one of four groups
such as two experimental and two control groups)
Types of Quantitative Research
Experimental research design
Types of Quantitative Research
Experimental research design
Types of Quantitative Research
Experimental research design
Types of Quantitative Research
Experimental research design
Types of Quantitative Research
Non-experimental research design – the researcher is
not able to control or manipulate any phenomena
such as treatment or intervention that may influence
the participant’s behavior or performance.
• The researcher has no direct influence on
changing what has been selected to be
investigate
Types of Quantitative Research
Non-experimental research design
a. Causal-comparative research – examines whether a naturally occurring
treatment or intervention affects an outcome of interest.
b. Comparative study – examine the differences or similarities between
groups on a variable of interest.
c. Correlational study – examines relationships among two or more
variables. Examines also the direction and degree of relationship
between variables.
d. Descriptive-survey research – provides simple data about the amount
or frequency of something.
e. Ex-post facto study – identifies treatment or intervention that occurred
in the past and successive responses in such a way that it may be
possible to infer causal relationships between them.
5

Population and Samples

 A sample is a planned representative of a
population, and it should always be recognized in
terms of the population from where it was
obtained.
 In selecting individual samples for your research,
the sample size must be determined. One of the rules
to be considered is to select a sample size as large as
possible from the population. This will prevent
potential errors caused by the marginal difference
between the size of the population and the size of the
sample. This is called the sampling error.
Slovin’s Formula

N – population size
e – margin of error
n – sample size
Slovin’s Formula

N – population size
e – margin of error x sample size
n – sample size

Let’s say that you want a survey that represents approximately 293 students of
Senior High School students. You’re alright with a margin of error of 5%. And
you decided to use stratified random sampling. Using the sample size computed
you will identify how many samples are to be taken from each stratum? 44
students for STEM 11 A, 43 students for STEM 11 B, 20 students for ABM 11, 18
students for HUMSS 11, 35 students for STEM 12 A, 35 for STEM 12 B, 35
students for STEM 12 C, 31 students for ABM 12, and 32 students for HUMSS 12.
Slovin’s Formula

N – population size
e – margin of error x sample size
n – sample size

Let’s say that you want a survey that represents approximately 332 students of
Senior High School students. You’re alright with a margin of error of 5%. And
you decided to use stratified random sampling. Using the sample size computed
you will identify how many samples are to be taken from each stratum? 50
students for STEM 11 A, 48 students for STEM 11 B, 30 students for ABM 11, 25
students for HUMSS 11, 35 students for STEM 12 A, 45 for STEM 12 B, 39
students for STEM 12 C, 28 students for ABM 12, and 32 students for HUMSS 12.
Slovin’s Formula

N – population size
e – margin of error x sample size
n – sample size

You are a group of researchers conducting a survey to gather feedback on the

effectiveness of a new extracurricular program implemented in your school.
The school has a total population of 1000 students, with 52 students in
Kindergarten and an equal distribution of students across Grades 1 to 12. To
ensure the survey results are reliable and representative, you need to
determine the appropriate sample size using Slovin's formula and then
implement a stratified random sampling method.
Slovin’s Formula

N – population size
e – margin of error x sample size
n – sample size

Imagine you're part of a market research team tasked with gathering

feedback on a new product that your company is planning to launch. The
target market consists of 5000 potential customers, spread across
different age groups (18-25 (1000), 26-40 (1500), 41-55 (1000), 56+
(1500)). Your margin of error is 3%. To ensure accurate feedback, you
need to determine the appropriate sample size using Slovin's formula and
then implement a proportional stratified random sampling method based
on the distribution of the population across age groups.
Slovin’s Formula

N – population size
e – margin of error x sample size
n – sample size

Suppose you're involved in a project aimed at assessing patient satisfaction

in a hospital with 2000 patients admitted over the past year. The patients
belong to various age groups, ranging from pediatric to geriatric, and come
from different medical departments (surgery, cardiology, pediatrics). To
gather reliable feedback, you decide to use Slovin's formula to determine
the appropriate sample size and then apply a stratified random sampling
technique, ensuring representation from each age group and medical
department proportionate to their respective populations.
6

Sampling Design and Methods

 Sampling methods or techniques are
typically categorized in terms of the aspect of
the procedure such as random (probability)
or non-random (non-probability).
Methods of Sampling
Random or probability sampling – The researcher can
claim that the sample is representative of the population
and as such, can make generalizations about the
population.
a. Simple random sampling – Every numbered element in
the population has an equal probability of being selected
as part of the sample. Selection is done fairly, on an
impartial basis and without bias.
Example:
From a population of 400 bank managers, 175 are selected
randomly for the sample using draw lots.
Methods of Sampling
Random or probability sampling – The researcher can
claim that the sample is representative of the
population and as such, can make generalizations about
the population.
b. Systematic random sampling – A list of members of the
population is used so that every nth element has an
equal probability of being selected as part of the sample.
Example:
A list of 500 senior high school teachers attending a convention
is used to select every fifth teacher on the list of a random of 225
teachers.
Methods of Sampling
Random or probability sampling – The researcher can claim
that the sample is representative of the population and as
such, can make generalizations about the population.
c. Stratified random sampling – Elements are randomly selected
from strata or sections that divide the population. This is the
method commonly used mainly if there are various sources of
data.
Example:
400 studio contestants are first divided into boys and girls, and then
random groups of 65 boys and 65 girls are selected from each of the
two groups.
Methods of Sampling
Random or probability sampling – The researcher can claim
that the sample is representative of the population and as
such, can make generalizations about the population.
d. Cluster sampling – Equal groups are identified and randomly
selected, and participants in each selected group are used as
the sample. When a group is selected, regardless of who is in
the group will be considered as samples.
Example:
Eight of 25 private senior high schools in one division in the NCR, each
containing a high percentage in the National Aptitude Test are
randomly selected. Teachers in each selected school are surveyed.
Methods of Sampling
Random or probability sampling – The researcher can
claim that the sample is representative of the population
and as such, can make generalizations about the
population.
e. Multistage sampling method – This is commonly used
when there is no detailed or actual list of individuals.
Sampling stages are completed that means the population
elements are grouped into a hierarchy of individuals or
units, and sampling is accomplished successively. Some of
the methods mentioned are combine in stage.
Methods of Sampling
Random or probability sampling – The researcher can claim that the
sample is representative of the population and as such, can make
generalizations about the population.
e. Multistage sampling method

Example:
Out of 135 schools in six school divisions in a municipality, 38 public secondary schools are
proportionally selected based on the total number of schools. From each of the six divisions,
19 schools are taken from the division of city A, 5 schools are considered from the division of
city B, 7 schools are considered from the division of city C, and 7 schools are obtained from
the division of city D. Next, the lottery or fishbowl sampling method is used to identify the
participating schools. After the participating schools are identified, simple random sampling
with equal distribution is applied. This means 40 grade 10 students were chosen from each
randomly selected school. As a result, 1,520 grade 10 students enrolled during school year
2020 – 2021 are the participants selected using the fishbowl technique or repeated draw
lots.
Methods of Sampling
Non-random or non- probability sampling – In this method,
not every element of the population is given a chance of
being selected as part of a sample.
a. Convenience sampling – The researcher selects his or her
most preferred location or setting where the study can be
conducted. The researcher specifies the place and time where
the data can be collected.
Example:
A junior high school teacher was tasked to conduct research that
requires the inclusion of students as respondents. Conveniently the
junior high school teacher may use his or her own students as
respondents.
Methods of Sampling
Non-random or non- probability sampling – In this method,
not every element of the population is given a chance of being
selected as part of a sample.
b. Purposive sampling – The researcher selects specific elements
from the population that will be illustrative or informative about
the research topic. The researcher makes the judgment about
which cases should be selected to provide the best information to
address the purpose of the research.
Example:
It may be more enlightening to interview key personnel, such as department
heads and area managers, about effective management who have been in
the company for a number of years.
Methods of Sampling
Non-random or non- probability sampling – In this method,
not every element of the population is given a chance of being
selected as part of a sample.
c. Quota sampling – The researcher limits the number of samples
on the required number of participants of the study.
Example:
If a marketing staff wants 2,000 sample units and he needs to do survey
within a short timetable, he can position himself at a public place, such as
train station or shopping mall, and then approach women to ask what brand
of vitamin C medicine they usually consume.
7

Data-collection Procedures
 The process of collecting data in research is
called the instrumentation. The device or tool
used in collecting data for the purpose of research
is called an instrument.
Guidelines in selecting research instrument
1. Decide on whether the research instrument to be used is to be
modified or developed by other researcher(s).
2. If the research instrument to be used is developed by other
researcher(s), determine whether the developer has provided
appropriate permission for its use by other researcher.
Otherwise, seek permission for the research instrument’s use
by writing a formal letter to it’s developer.
3. In using developed research instrument by other researcher(s),
determine if there is a proof of established reliability and
validity especially from previous quantitative researches.
Guidelines in selecting research instrument
4. In using developed research instrument, look for the
reliability coefficient used to measure its accuracy.
According to Yazon, A.C., Callo, E.C., and Buenvinida,
L.P., accuracy is obtained as a result of employing ways
to establish the reliability coefficient of any research
instrument.
• The range of the reliability coefficient is from 0 to 1.00.
• The acceptable range value is 0.60 to 1.00.
• The higher the value of reliability coefficient, the more reliable the
research instrument is.
Guidelines in selecting research instrument
5. If you will modify a research instrument that has already
been used in previous researches, the established values of
reliability and validity may not be applicable anymore to
your study. It is advised to reestablish its reliability and
validity.
6. In discussing the research instrument in your written report
or output, include the copy of the sample items or the
entire research instrument, instructions for its usage, and
cover letter in the appendix and the name of the research
instrument used.
 Reliability refers to the consistency with which a
method measures something. If the same result can be
consistently obtained using the same methods under
the same circumstances, the measurement is
considered reliable.
Types of Reliability
1. Equivalence – If scores from the administration of a
research instrument correlate highly with scores
obtained from another research instrument that is
standardized, then the previous instrument is
equivalent to the other instrument. The
standardized instrument that is supposed to be
more expensive can be substituted with the first
instrument.
Types of Reliability
2. Homogeneity – An instrument should contain items
that measure what it really intends to measure,
3. Scorer reliability – An instrument should receive the
same level of agreement form different raters if the
same instrument was administered to them.
4. Stability – An instrument should produce the same
results upon re-administration of the research
instrument to the same sample.
 Validity refers to how accurately a method
measures what it claims to be measuring. If the
research has high validity, it means that it produces
results that correspond to real properties,
characteristics, and variations in the physical or social
world. A high reliability is an indicator that a
measurement is valid. If a method is unreliable, it is
likely to be invalid.
 Types of Validity
1. Construct validity – This is achieved when researchers use
adequate definitions and measurement of variables in the
research instrument.
2. Content validity – this is achieved when a research instrument
has items that are essential, important, and relevant on how
variables are defined. This can be attained by a detailed search
of relevant literatures or by consulting professional experts.
3. Criterion validity – this is achieved when an existing research
instrument can predict future performance when the
instrument is administered some other time.
 Reliability Coefficient and its description
• 0.50 and below – The research instrument has
questionable reliability and needs revision.
• 0.51 to 0.60 – the research instrument has low reliability
and is suggested to undergo revision unless it is quite short
with 10 items or fewer.
• 0.61 to 0.70 – the research instrument has moderate
reliability and needs to be supplemented by other
measures.
 Reliability Coefficient and its description
• 0.71 to 0.80 – the research instrument has high reliability
and has probably good items that need to be improved.
• 0.81 to 0.90 – the research instrument has very high
reliability and is very good.
• 0.91 to 1.00 – the research instrument has excellent
reliability and is very ideal.
 Characteristics of a good research instrument
Items are short, simple, and clear.
Language used is direct and specific.
There are no double-barreled items. (A double-barreled question/item is a fallacy
wherein there is more than one issue that the question touches on, but only one
answer is allowed.)
Response scale matches the item.
There is no difficulty of answering the items.
Double negatives are avoided.
Biased and leading items are avoided.
Response options are mutually exclusive (cannot occur at the same time).
Point on each scale has clear meaning.
Layout has a professional look.
 Data-collection Procedures for Qualitative
Research
1. Documentary analysis – requires the researcher to
inspect or scrutinize available primary ad secondary
documents or resources. It also allows the researcher to
save time and cost of transcribing because the pieces of
evidence are written.
a. Public documents – includes minutes of meetings and
newspaper.
b. Private documents – includes diaries, journals, and letters.
 Data-collection Procedures for Qualitative
Research
2. Interview – useful for researchers whose respondents cannot be
directly observed. It is used when the researcher personally requests
for important information he or she needs from the respondents
a. Semi-structured interview – the researcher prepare a specific sets of
questions but is allowed to ask some follow up questions to the
respondents where they can elaborate on their answers.
b. Structured interview – the researcher prepares and organizes questions
that the respondent will answer, and he or she does not ask beyond what
is written in the interview in a natural manner.
c. Unstructured interview – the researcher prepares an outline of the topics
that he or she will as form the respondents.
 Data-collection Procedures for Qualitative
Research
3. Observation – requires the researcher to personally watch, relate, and
communicate with the respondent or subject in the research. It allows recording
what the respondent exactly does and says in their day-to-day activities. Proofs to
support claims about the research topic are taken in a natural setting. It also allows
the researcher to trace the respondent’s behavioral change over a certain period of
time.
a. Complete observer – allows the researcher to observe but not to participate.
b. Complete participant – requires the researcher to hide his or her role during the
observation.
c. Observer as participant – allows the researcher to make his or her role to be
known.
d. Participant as observer – requires the role of the researcher to be more of a
participant than an observer.
 Data-collection Procedures for Qualitative
Research
4. Questionnaire – the most commonly used data-collection method. It is easier
to administer and has the tendency to collect a larger number of responses on
a single time. It also requires the respondent to answer a prepared set of
questions regarding the information that the researcher wants to elicit from
him or her.
a. Self-administered questionnaire – makes the researcher act as the
interviewer and the interviewee at the same time by asking the questions
to the respondent through phone or in-person and writing his or her
answers on a piece of paper
b. Postal questionnaire – allows the researcher to use the questionnaire
where it goes to the respondent through email or postal service that
should be sent back to him or her.
 Data-collection Procedures for Quantitative
Research
1. Content analysis – allows the researcher to
look for oral or written forms of
communication in answering research
questions. It also allows the researcher to
analyze the data collected coming from
materials other than books.
 Data-collection Procedures for Quantitative
Research
1. Content analysis – allows the researcher to
look for oral or written forms of
communication in answering research
questions. It also allows the researcher to
analyze the data collected coming from
materials other than books.
 Data-collection Procedures for Quantitative
Research
2. Experiment – allows the respondent to be subjected under a treatment or
intervention then the results are evaluated using a scientific method of data
collection. It also allows the researcher to investigate the manner by which
the treatment or intervention affects the respondent and the reasons behind
the effects of such treatment or intervention. It familiarizes the researcher of
various ways of doing the experiment based on the following models:
 Data-collection Procedures for Quantitative
Research
3. Observation – allows the researcher to use his or her sense
organs in collecting data by watching and listening to everything
that happens in the area of observation.
a. Direct observation – allows the researcher to see or listen to
everything that happens to the respondent in person. It
requires the researcher to focus his or her attention during
the observation as indicated by the general and specific
research problems.
b. Indirect observation – allows the researcher to observe with
the use of technology to see and hear his or her respondent.
 Data-collection Procedures for Quantitative
Research
4. Survey – allows the researcher to use the most appropriate tool in collecting data from
the respondent in the form of an interview or a questionnaire
a. Interview – allows the researcher to compose and ask set questions to the
respondent orally using technology. It requires the researcher to use a sequence in
asking questions from opening questions that establish friendly conversation up to
closing questions that allow the respondent to give comments and reactions about
the interview. It also requires the researcher to give information to the respondent
regarding the next activity after the interview.
b. Questionnaire – allows the researcher to compose factual and opinionated
questions. Factual questions are composed in multiple-response type using options
in the form of scales. Opinionated questions are provided with enough space
where the respondent is allowed to write. Allows the researcher to use the
questionnaire where it goes to the respondent through email or postal service
which should be sent back to him or her.