Sample Designs and Sampling

Procedures
 Sampling
• The process of sampling involves using a
small number of items or parts of the
population to make conclusions regarding
the whole population. The purpose of
sampling is to estimate some unknown
characteristic of the population.
 Sampling Terminology
• Sample
• Population or universe
• Population element
• Census
 Sample
• Subset of a larger population
 Population
• Any complete group that share some
common characteristics
– People
– Sales territories
– Stores
 Census
• Investigation of all individual elements that
make up a population
 WHY SAMPLE?
• PRAGMATIC REASONS: Applied
business research projects usually have
budget and time constraints.
• It would not be possible to contact the
whole population within a short period of
time.
• Sampling cuts costs, reduces manpower
requirements, and gathers vital information
quickly.
• ACCURATE AND RELIABLE RESULTS:
properly selected samples are sufficiently accurate in most
cases.
• Even when the populations have considerable
heterogeneity, large samples provide data of sufficient
precision to make most decisions.
• A sample may be more accurate than a census. In a census
of a large population, there is greater likelihood of non-
sampling errors. In a field survey a small, well-trained,
closely supervised group may do a more careful and
accurate job of collecting information than a large group of
nonprofessional interviewers trying to contact everyone.
• DESTRUCTION OF TEST UNITS: Many
research projects, especially those in quality
control testing, require the destruction of
the items being tested.
Stages in the Define the target population
Selection
of a Sample Select a sampling frame

Determine if a probability or nonprobability

sampling method will be chosen

Plan procedure
for selecting sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork
 Target Population
• TO WHOM DO WE WANT TO TALK
• It is the complete group of specific
population elements relevant to the research
project. E.g. in Industrial Buyer Behaviour

• Relevant population
• Operationally define
 Sampling Frame
• A list of elements from which the sample
may be drawn
• Also called the Working population
• Sampling frame error occurs when certain
elements are excluded or when the entire
population is not accurately represented in
the sample frame. It is possible for elements
to be either over- or underrepresented in a
sampling frame.
 Sampling Units

• The sampling unit is a singles element or group of

elements subject to selection in the sample. For example, if
an airline wishes to sample passengers, every 25th name
on a complete list of passengers may be taken. In this case
the sampling unit would be the same as the element.

• Primary Sampling Units (PSU)

• Secondary Sampling Units
• Tertiary Sampling Units
 Two Major Categories of Sampling
• Probability sampling
• Known, nonzero probability for every element each
member of the population has an equal probability
of being selected.

• Non-probability sampling
• Probability of selecting any particular member is
unknown
• no appropriate statistical techniques for measuring
random sampling error from a nonprobability
sample. Thus, projecting the data beyond the sample
is inappropriate.
 Nonprobability Sampling
• Convenience
• Judgment
• Quota
• Snowball
 Probability Sampling
• Simple random sample
• Systematic sample
• Stratified sample
• Cluster sample
• Multistage area sample
 Convenience Sampling

• Also called haphazard or accidental

sampling
• The sampling procedure of obtaining the
people or units that are most conveniently
available
• Best suited for exploratory research
 Judgment Sampling
• Also called purposive sampling
• An experienced individual selects the
sample based on his or her judgment about
some appropriate characteristics required
of the sample member
• Especially used to forecast election results
 Quota Sampling
• Ensures that the various subgroups in a population
are represented on pertinent sample characteristics
to the exact extent that the investigators desire
• The interviewer has a quota to achieve
• Respondents are selected according to a
convenience sampling procedure rather than on a
probability basis, the haphazard selection of
subjects may introduce bias. Quota samples have
the tendency to include people who are easily
found, willing to be interviewed, and middle class.
• It should not be confused with stratified sampling.
 Snowball Sampling
• A variety of procedures
• Initial respondents are selected by
probability methods
• Additional respondents are obtained from
information provided by the initial
respondents
• Used to locate members of rare populations
by referrals.
 Simple Random Sampling
• A sampling procedure that ensures that each
element in the population will have an equal
chance of being included in the sample
• Random numbers table can be used in large
population
 Systematic Sampling
• A simple process
• Every nth name from the list will be drawn
• Sampling Interval = population size/sample
size
• The problem of periodicity occurs if a list
has a systematic pattern, that is, if it is not
random in character.
 Stratified Sampling
• Probability sample
• Subsamples are drawn within different strata
• Each stratum is more or less equal on some characteristic
• Do not confuse with quota sample
• First a variable is identified for basis of stratification.
• The variable chosen should increase the homogeneity
within each stratum and increase the heterogeneity
between strata. The stratification variable is usually a
categorical variable or one easily converted into
categories, that is, subgroups.
•  Next, for each separate subgroup or strata, a list of
population elements must be obtained
 Cluster Sampling
• A population is divided into clusters using naturally
occurring geographic or other boundaries. The
clusters are randomly selected and a sample is
collected by randomly selecting from each cluster.
• The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample
economically while retaining the characteristics of a
probability sample.
• The primary sampling unit is no longer the
individual element in the population
• The primary sampling unit is a larger cluster of
elements located in proximity to one another
Stratified
• Population divided into few subgroups
– Each group has many elements in
it.
– Subgroups are selected according
to some criterion that is related to
the variables under study
• Homogeneity within subgroups
• Heterogeneity between subgroups
• Choice of elements from within
each subgroup
Cluster
• Population divided into many
subgroups
– Each subgroup has few
elements in it
– Subgroups are selected
according to some criterion of
ease
• Heterogeneity within subgroups
• Homogeneity between
subgroups
• Random choice of subgroups
 What is the
Appropriate Sample Design?
• Degree of accuracy
• Resources
• Time
• Advanced knowledge of the population
• National versus local
• Need for statistical analysis