chapter

23
Aggression
in Sport
 Session Outline

• Aggression in Contemporary Sport

• What Is Aggression?
• Causes of Aggression
• Aggression in Sport: Special
Considerations
• Implications for Practice
Aggression in Contemporary Sport

• NBA Pistons–Pacers brawl

• NHL player Bertuzzi’s blindsided punch

broke vertebra of competitor Steve Moore

• Local youth ice hockey coach conducted a

drill where players practice fighting
 What Is Aggression?
Aggression
“Any form of behavior directed toward the
goal of harming or injuring another living
being who is motivated to avoid such
treatment” (Baron & Richardson, 1994)
 Criteria for Aggression

• Aggression is a behavior.
• Aggression involves harm or injury
(physical or psychological).
• Aggression is directed toward a living
organism.
• Aggression involves intent.
 Types of Aggression

Hostile or reactive aggression

The primary goal is to inflict injury or
psychological harm on another.
Instrumental aggression
This is aggression occurring in the quest of
some nonaggressive goal.
Distinction Between Instrumental and
Reactive Aggression
• It is too simplistic to think of instrumental and
reactive aggression as a simple dichotomy.
• The clear majority of instrumental aggressive acts
occur in conjunction with some type of reactive
process.
• Think of hostile and instrumental aggression as
anchoring the opposite end of a continuum and
recognize that at times aggression might involve
elements of both types.
 Causes (Theories) of Aggression

• Instinct theory
• Frustration–aggression hypothesis
• Social learning theory
• Revised frustration–aggression theory
• General model of aggression
 Causes of Aggression

Instinct theory
Individuals have an instinct to be aggressive,
which builds up until it must be expressed
(directly or via catharsis).
[no support]
 Causes of Aggression

Frustration–aggression hypothesis
Aggression is the direct result of a frustration
that occurs because of goal blockage or
failure.
[No support]
 Causes of Aggression

Social learning theory

Aggression is learned through observing
others (modeling) and then having similar
behavior reinforced.
[Support]
 Causes of Aggression

Revised frustration–aggression theory

Combines elements of frustration–aggression theory with social learning theory.
Frustration does not always lead to aggression. It increases the likelihood of
aggression by increasing arousal, anger, and other thoughts, feelings, and
emotions. Increased arousal and anger result in aggression only when socially
learned cues signal the appropriateness of aggression in the particular situation.

[Support]
 Causes of Aggression
The general aggression model
 Causes of Aggression
The general aggression model
Aggression occurs as a result of a complex
process mediated by one's thoughts,
feelings, and emotions and resulting from
the interaction of numerous personal and
situational factors.

[Support]
 Aggression in Sport
Special considerations
• Spectator aggression is associated with
• small-scale, on-the-field aggressive
acts;
• aroused conditions;
• alcohol use;
• younger, disadvantaged male
spectators; and
• (in some cases) fan enjoyment.
 Aggression in Sport

Special considerations
Game reasoning and aggression: Many athletes view aggression as inappropriate in
general but appropriate in the sport environment. This is called bracketed morality.
 Aggression in Sport

Special considerations
Aggression and athletic injuries: In addition to the ethical issues regarding the appropriateness of
aggression in sport, evidence is amassing to show that aggressive play is related to athletic injuries.
 Aggression in Sport

Special considerations
Athletic performance and aggression: No clear pattern has been found, but professionals
must decide if they value enhanced performance at the cost of increased aggression.
 Aggression in Sport
Special considerations
Team moral atmosphere and aggression
• Aggression in young athletes has been
predicted by perceptions of teammates’
aggressive behavior in the same
situation and the young athletes’
willingness to injure others at their
coach’s request.
• Team norms also contribute to the moral
atmosphere that influences aggression
in athletes.
 Aggression in Sport
Special considerations
Sport-specific aggression determinants include athletes behaving
aggressively because

• someone has committed aggression

against them,
• they are highly ego oriented and have a low
level of moral development,
• they want to show how tough they are,
• they see it as part of their role, and
• they feel group pressures to be aggressive.
 Implications for Practice
Recognize when aggression is most likely to occur: when
people are frustrated and aroused, often because they

• are losing,
• perceive unfair officiating,
• are embarrassed,
• are physically in pain, or
• are playing below capabilities.
Note: Losing by a large margin, losing to an
opponent one is outplaying, and playing poorly
are especially important situations related to
aggression.
 Implications for Practice

• Understand when aggression is likely to

occur.
• Control aggression via stress or emotion
management training.
• Keep winning in perspective.
• Distinguish between aggression and
assertive or intense play.
• Teach nonviolent conflict resolution skills.
• Teach appropriate behavior.
(continued)
Implications for Practice (continued)
Control spectator aggression.
1. Develop strict alcohol control policies.
2. Immediately penalize spectators for
aggressive acts.
3. Hire officials who don’t tolerate
aggression.
4. Inform coaches that aggression won’t be
tolerated.
5. Work with media not to glorify aggressive
acts.
 ISSP Position Stand
on Aggression and Violence in Sport
Recommendation 1
Management should make fundamental penalty
revisions so that rule-violating behavior results
in punishments that have greater punitive value
than potential reinforcement.

Recommendation 2
Management must ensure proper coaching of
teams, particularly at junior levels, that
emphasizes a fair-play code of conduct among
participants. (continued)
 ISSP Position Stand
on Aggression and Violence in Sport
(continued)
Recommendation 3
Management should ban the use of alcoholic
beverages at sport events.
Recommendation 4
Management must make sure facilities are
adequate regarding catering and spacing needs
and the provision of modern amenities.

(continued)
 ISSP Position Stand
on Aggression and Violence in Sport
(continued)
Recommendation 5
The media must place in proper perspective the isolated
incidents of aggression that occur in sport, rather
than making them “highlights.”

Recommendation 6
The media should promote a campaign to decrease
violence and hostile aggression in sport, which should
also involve the participation and commitment of
athletes, coaches, management, officials, and
spectators.
(continued)
 ISSP Position Stand
on Aggression and Violence in Sport
(continued)
Recommendation 7
Coaches, managers, athletes, media, officials, and authority figures (i.e.,
police) should take part in workshops on aggression and violence to
ensure they understand the topic of aggression, why it occurs, the cost of
aggressive acts, and ways in which aggressive behavior can be controlled.

(continued)
 ISSP Position Stand
on Aggression and Violence in Sport
(continued)
Recommendation 8
Coaches, managers, officials, and the media
should encourage athletes to engage in
prosocial behavior and should punish those
who perform acts of hostility.

(continued)
 ISSP Position Stand
on Aggression and Violence in Sport
(continued)
Recommendation 9
Athletes should take part in programs aimed at
helping them reduce behavioral tendencies toward
aggression. The tightening of rules, imposing of
harsher penalties, and changing of reinforcement
patterns are only parts of the answer to inhibiting
aggression in sport. Ultimately, the athlete must
assume responsibility.