ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

CHAPTER-3

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 CHAPTER-3
Newton's Laws of Motion Work, Energy and Momentum.
Newton's Laws: The following three laws of motion given by Sir Isaac Newton
are considered the axioms of mechanics;
1)Every particle persists in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line (i.e, with constant velocity) unless acted upon by a force
2)If is the (external) force acting on a particle of mass m which as a
consequence is moving with velocity then

where is called the linear momentum. If m is independent of time t this

becomes

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where is the acceleration of the particle
3)If particle 1 acts on particle 2 with a force in a direction
along the line joining the particles, while particle 2 acts
on particle 1 with a force , then
. In other words, to every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.

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Definitions of Force and Mass
The concept of the force and mass in the above axioms are as yet
undifined, although intuitively we have same idea of mass as a measure
of the "quantity of matter in an object" and force as a measure of the
"push or pull on an object". We can however use the above axioms to
develop definitions.
Units of Force and Mass.
Standard units of mass are the gram in the cgs (Centimeter-gram -
second) system, kilogram(kg) in the mks (meter-kilogram-second) system
and pound (lb) in the fps (foot-pound-second) system, standard units of
force in these systems are the dyne, newton and poundal ( respectively.
A dyne is that force which will give a mass an acceleration of . A Newton
is that force which will give a mass an acceleration of . A poundal is that
force which will give a 1 lb mass an acceleration of .
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Inertial Frames of reference. Absolute Motion
It must be emphasized that Newton's Laws are postulated under
the assumption that all measurements or observations are taken
with respect to a coordinate system or frame of reference which
is fixed in space, i.e. is absolutely at rest. This is the so called
assumption that space or motion is absolute. It is quite clear,
however, that a particle can be at rest or in uniform motion in
a straight line with respect to one frame of reference and be
travelling in a curve and accelerating with respect to another
frame of reference.
We can show that if Newton's Laws hold in one frame of
reference they also hold in any other frame of reference which is
moving at constant velocity relative to it.
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All such frames of reference are called inertial frames of
reference or Newtonian frames of reference. To all observers in
such inertial systems the force acting on a particle will be the
same, i.e., it will be invariant. This is sometimes called the
classical principle of relativity.
The earth is not exactly an inertial system, but for many
practical purposes can be considered as one so long as motion
takes place with speeds which are not large. For non-inertial
systems we use moving coordinate system connected to it. For
speeds comparable with the speed of light , Newton's laws of
mechanics must be replaced by Einstein's laws of relativity or
relativistic mechanics.
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Work

If a force acting on a particle gives it a displacement , then the

work done by the force on the particle is defined as
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Since only the component of in the direction of is effective in
producing the motion. The total work done by a force field
(vector field) in moving the particle from point to point along
the curve of Fig. 3-1 is given by the line integral

Where and are the position rectors of and respectively.

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Power
The time rate of doing work on a particle is often called the
instantaneous power, or briefly the power, applied to the particle. Using
the symbols and for work and power respectively we have

If is the force acting on a particle and is the velocity of the particle, then
we have

Kinetic Energy
Suppose that the above particle has constant mass and that at time and
it is located at and and moving with velocities and respectively. Then
we can prove the following.
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Theorem3-1 The total work done in moving the particle
along from to is given by

If we call the quantity

The kinetic energy of the particle, then Theorem3-1 is

equivalent to the statement. Total work done from to along

or in symbols, where
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Conservative Force Fields.
Suppose there exists a scaler function such that . Then we can
prove the following.
Theorem3-2 The total work done in moving the particle along
from to is

In such case the work done is independent of the path joining

points and . If the work done by a force field in moving a
particle from one point to another point is independent of the
path joining the points, then the force field is said to be
conservative. The following theorems are valid.
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Theorem3-3 A force field is conservative if and only if there exists a
continuously differentiable scalar field such that or equivalently, if and
only if

Theorem3-4 A continuously differentiable force field is conservative if

and only if for any closed non-intersecting curve (simple closed curve)

i.e. the total work done in moving a particle around any closed path is
zero.
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Potential Energy or Potential
The scalar such that is called the potential energy, also called the scalar
potential or briefly the potential, of the particle in the conservative force field . In
such case equation (11) of Theorem3-2 can be written
Total work done from to along curve

or in symbols,

where
It should be noted that the potential is defined within an arbitrary additive
constant. We can express the potential as

where we suppose where

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Conservation of Energy
For a conservative force field we have from equations (10) and (15)

which can also be written

The quantity , which is the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy, is called
the total energy. From (18) we see that the total energy at is the same as the total
energy at . We can state our results in the following.
Theorem3-5 In a conservative force field the total energy (i.e. the sum of and ) is
constant. In symbols . This theorem is often called the principle of conservative of
energy.
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Impulse
Suppose that in Fig 3-1 the particle is located at and at times and where it has
velocities and respectively. The time integral of the force given by

Is called the impulse of the force . The following theorem can be proved, in a
problem later.
Theorem3-6 The impulse is equal to the change in momentum; or in symbols,

The theorem is true even when the mass is variable and the force is non-
conservative.

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Torque and Angular Momentum

If a particle with position vector moves in a force field , Figure 3-2, we define

As the torque or moment of the force about O. The magnitude of is a measure of

the "turning effect" produced on the particle by the force we can prove the
following, later in a problem.

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Theorem2-7

The quantity

is called the angular momentum or moment of momentum about 0 . In

words the theorem states that the torque acting on a particle equals
the time rate of change in its angular momentum, i.e.,

This theorem is true even if the mass is variable or the force non-
conservative.

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Conservation of Momentum (Linear Momentum)
If we let in Newton's second law, we find

this leads the following.

Theorem3-8 If the net external force acting on a particle is zero, its
momentum will remain unchanged. This theorem is often called the
principle of conservation of momentum. For the case of constant mass
it is equivalent to Newton's first Law,

=0

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Conservation of Angular Momentum
If we let in (24), we find

this leads the following.

Theorem3-9 If the net external torque acting on a particle is zero, the
angular momentum will remain unchanged. This theorem is often
called the principle of conversation of angular momentum.
Non-Conservative Forces
If there is no scalar function such that (or, equivalently, if , then is
called a non-conservative force field. The results , (20), and (24) above
hold for all types of force fields, conservative or not. However, (11) and
(17) or (18) hold only for conservative force fields
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Statics or Equilibrium of a Particle
An important special case of motion of a particle occurs when
the particle is, or appears to be, at rest or in equilibrium with
respect to an inertial coordinate system or frame of reference.
A necessary and sufficient condition for this is, Newton's second
law, that

i.e, the net (external) force acting on the particle is zero if the
force field is conservative with potential, then a necessary and
sufficient condition for a particle to be in equilibrium of a point
is that at the point.
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Stability of Equilibrium
If a particle which is displacement slightly from an
equilibrium point tends to return to , then we call a point
of stability or stable point and the equilibrium is said to be
stable. Otherwise we say that the point is one of
instability and the equilibrium is unstable. The following
theorem is fundamental.
Theorem3-10 A necessary and sufficient condition that an
equilibrium point be one of stability is that the potential
at the point be a minimum.
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 SOLVED PROBLEMS
3-1) Due to a force field, a particle of mass 5 units moves along a space curve
whose position vector is given as a function of time by

Find (a) the velocity, b) the momentum, c) the acceleration and any time
a) Velocity
b) Momentum

c) Acceleration
d) Force

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3-2) A particle of mass moves in the plane so that its position vector is
, where and are positive constants and

a) Show that the particle moves in an ellipse

b) Show that the force acting on the particle is always directed toward the origin

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Solution:
a) The position vector is and so
, which are the parametric equations of an ellipse having semi-major and semi-
minor axes of lengths a and b respectively, since
the ellipse is also given by
b) Assuming the particle has constant mass , the force acting on it is

, which shows that the force is always directed toward the origin.

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3-3)

Two observers O and , fixed relative to two coordinate systems Oxyz and
respectively, observe the motion of a particle in space, shown in figure above.
Show that to both observers the particle appears to have the same force acting on
it if and only if the coordinate systems are moving at constant velocity relative to
each other.
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Solution:
Let the position vectors of the particle in the Oxyz and Ox'y'z' coordinate systems
be ond respectively and the let the position vector with respect to be . Relative
to observers and the forces acting on according to Newton's laws are given
respectively by

the difference is observed forces is,

And this will be zero if and only if or i.e. the coordinate systems are moving at
constant velocity relative to each other. Such coordinate systems are called inertial
coordinate systems. The result is sometimes called the classical principle of
relativity.

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3-4) A particle of mass 2 moves in a force field depending on time given by

Assuming that at the particle is located at and has velocity , find,

a) the velocity and b) the position at any time t
a) By Newton’s second law,

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Integrating with respect to and calling the constant of integration, we have

since at , we have and so

b) Since , we have by part (a)

integrating with respect to and calling the constant of integration

since at , we have and so

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3-5) A constant force acting on a particle of mass m changes the velocity from to
in time interval
a) Prove that
b) Does the result in (a) hold if the force is variable? explain.

Solution:
a) By Newton's Second Law

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Then if and are constants we have on integrating
at , so that i.e.

at so that i.e.

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Another Method
Write (1) as . Then since at and at we have

which yields the required result

b) No, the result does not hold in general if is not a constant,

since in such case we would not to obtain the result of
integration achieved in (a)

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3-6) Find the constant force in the (a) cgs system and b) mks system needed to
accelerate a mass of 10000 gram moving along a straight line from a speed of to
in 5 minutes.
Assume the motion to be in the direction of the positive axis. Then if and are the
velocities we have from the given data
a) In the cgs system

then
dynes

Thus the magnitude of the force is so 50000 dynes in the direction of the positive
axis

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b) In the mks system ,
Then

Thus the magnitude is 0,5 Newtons in the positive direction. This result could also
have been obtained from the part (a) on noting that or 1 dyne

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3-7) What constant force is needed to bring a 2000 lb mass moving at a speed of
to rest in 4 seconds
we shall assume that the motion takes place in a straight line which we choose at
the positive direction of the -axis. Then using the English absolute system of units,
we have

then

Thus the force has magnitude poundals in the negative direction, i.e., in a
direction opposite to the motion. This is of course expected.

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3-8) A particle of constant mass moves in space under the influence of a force
field . Assuming that at times and the velocity is and respectively, Prove that the
work done is the change in kinetic the energy, i.e.,

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3-9) Find the work done in moving an object along a vector if the applied force is
just shown in Figure below.

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3-10) Referring to problem 3-2, a) find the kinetic energy of the particle at point
and b) find the work done by the force field in moving the particle from A to B, c)
illustrate the result of problem 3-8 in this case and d) show that the total work
done by the field in moving the particle once around the ellipse is zero
a) Velocity
Kinetic Energy
KE at where cost
KE at where cost , sint

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b) Method 1. From part (b) of problem 3-2
Work done
Work done
Work done
Method-2 We can assume that at and and respectively. Then:
Work done

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c) From parts (a) and (b)
work done
d) Using method-2 of part (b) we have, since goes from 0 to for a complete circuit
around the ellipse
work done=
work done=
method-1 can also be used to show the same result.

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3-11) Prove that if is the force acting on a particle and is the
(Instantaneous)velocity of the particle, then the (Instantaneous) power applied to
the particle is given by
By definition the work done by a force in giving a particle a displacement is

The (instantaneous) power is given by as required.

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3-12) Find the (instantaneous) power applied to the particle in problem 3-1 by the
force field.
By problem 3-1, the velocity and force are given respectively by

Then the power (by problem 3-11) is given by

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3-13) Find the work done by the force in a) problem 3-6) b) problem 3.7
a) In the cgs system;

Then by problem 3-8,

Work done = change in KE

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b) As in part (a)
work done

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3-14) Show that;
The force field Lefined by

is a conservative force field.

Method-1 The force field is conservative if and only if

İnserting the force field components in to following

determinant gives;

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then force field is conservative.

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Method 2. The force field is conservative if and only if there exists a scalar function
or potential such that , then

Hence if is conservative we must be able to find such that

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Integrate the first equation with respect to keeping and Then,
(2)
Where is a function of and .
Similarly integrating the second equation with respect to y (keeping and constant)
and the third equation with respect to (keeping and constant), we have,
(3)
(4)
Equations (2), (3), and (4) yields common V if we choose
(5)
Where is any arbitrary constant, and it follows that , is the required potential

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Method-3

where

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3/15) Prove theorem 3-2. If the force acting on; a particle is giren by , then the tolal
work done in moving the particle along a curve from to is
we have

3/16) Find the work done by the force field of problem ) in moving a particle from
the point to
Work done
Work done

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3/17) a) Show that the force field of problem 3-2 is conservative
b) Find the potential energy at points A and B of Fig-3 (Which is elliptical path)
c) Find the work done by the forces in moving the particle from A to B and compare
with ptoblem 3-10(b)
d) Find the total energy of the particle and show that it is constant, i.e.,
demonstrate the principle of conservation of energy
a) From problem
then
, hence the field is conservative.

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b) Since the field is conservative there exists a potential such that

then from which, omitting the constant, we have

Which is the required potential

c) Potential at point A of Fig-3 (Where then, work from A to B=Potential at A-
Potential at B =
agreeing with problem 3-10(b)

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d) By problem 3-10(a) and part (b)
at any point

at any point

thus at any point we have on adding and using

which is constant.
3-18) Prove theorem 3-6. The impulse of a force is equal to the change in
momentum
By definition of impulse and Newton's second Law, we have

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3/19) A mass of 5000 kg moves on a straight line from a speed of 540 km/hr to 720
km/hr in 2 minutes. What is the impulse developed in this time.
Method-1. Assume that the mass travels in the direction of the positive x-axis. In
the impulse system

Then from problem 3-18

Since or

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Thus the impulse has magnitude ewton sec in the positive
direction.
Method-2 Using the cgs system
Then, impulse
Since
Note that in finding the impulse we did not have to use the time
2 minutes as given in the statement of the problem.

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3/20) Prove Theorem 3-8: The amount of force or torque about the
origin of a coordinate system is equal to the time rate of change of
angular momentum.
The moment of force or torque about the origin 0 is

the angular momentum or moment of momentum about 0 is

, now we have

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3/21) Determine a) the torque and b) the angular momentum about the origin for
the particle of problem 3-4 at any time t.
a) Torque

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b) Angular momentum

Note that the torque is the derivative with respect to t of the angular momentum,
illustrating
05/08/2023 the theorem of problem 3/20.
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3/22) A particle moves in a force field given by
where is the position vector of the particle. Prove that the angular momentum of
particle is conserved.
The torque acting on the particle is . Then by theorem 3-9, the angular momentum
is constant, i.e., the angular momentum is conserved.

3/23) Show that the force field given by is non-conservative, we have

Then, since , the field is nonconservative

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3/24) A particle moves along the -axis in a force field having potential

a) Determine the points of equilibrium and b) investigate the stability

a) Equilibrium points occur where or in this case or
Thus there is only one equilibrium point, at
b) Method-1; since it follows that at x=0, V is a minimum. Thus by theorem 3-10,
x=0 is a point of stability.
Method-2; we have . Then when >0 the particle undergoes a force to left, and
when <0, the perticle undergoes a force to the right. Thus =0 is a point of stability.

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 V(x)

Method-3; The fact that =0 is a

minimum point can be seen
𝑥
from a graph of V() vs , fig-3.10.
x=0 is a minimum point

Figure 3-10

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3/25) Find the work done in moving a particle once around a circle C in the xy
plane, if the circle has center at the origin and radius 3 and if the force field is given
by

in the plane and so that the work done is

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Choose the parametric equations of the circle as
y
where varies from 0 to , see Figure 3-11
then the line integrals becomes

r
θ

r=x i+y j=3cost i+3sint j

Fig-3.11
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In traversing we have chosen the counterclockwise direction
indicated in Fig-3-11, we call this the positive direction, or say
that has been traversed in the positive since. If were traversed
in the clock wise (negative) direction the value of the integral
would be .
3/25) a) If , where is single-valued and has continuous partial derivatives, show that
the work done in moving a particle from one point
in this field to another point is in independent of the path joining the two points.
b) Conversely if is independent of the path C joining any two points, show that
there exists a function V such that

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a) Work done

Then the integral depends only on points and and not on the path
joining them. This is true of course only if is
single-valued at all points and

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b) Let . By hypothesis is independent of the path C joining any two points, which
we take as and respectively. Then

is independent of the path Joining and .

Thus

Where is a path Joining and .

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Let us choose as a particular path the straight-line segments from to to to and call
the work done along this particular path. Then,

It follows that

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, then

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Thus a necessary and sufficient condition that a field be conservative is that .
3/26) a) Show thot is a conservative force field.
b) Find the potantial
c) Find the work done in moving an object in this field from to
a) A necessary and sufficient condition that a force will be conservative is that
Now, , Thus is a conservative force field.
b) As in Problem-14, Method 2 or 3, we find
c)

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3/27) Prove that if is independent of the joining any two points. and in a given
region, then for all closed paths in the region and conversly.

P2

P1 A

05/08/2023 Fig. 3-12

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Let (Shown in ) be a closed curve. Then

Since the integral for and along a path through A is the same as that along a path
B, by hypothesis. Conversely if then

so that,

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3/28) a) Show that a necessary and sufficient condition that be an exact
differential is that where
b) Show that
is an exact differantial of a functiun and find
Solution: Suppose an exact differential. Then since , y and are independent
variables.

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Conversely if , then and so i.e.
an exact differential.
b) and is computed to be zero, so that by part (a) the required result follows

Referring to problem 3-4 find

a) the of the particle at and .
b) b) the work done by the field in moving the particle from the point where to
the point where
c) the momentum of the particle at and and
) the impulse in moving the particle from to

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a) From part (a) of problem 3-4

then the velocities and are

and the kinetic energies at and are

b) Work done
Work done
Work donedt

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Work done= 2592.
Note that by part (a) this is the some as the difference or change in
kinetic energies 3069-477=2592, illustrating theorem 3-1 such that
Work done=change in KE
c) By part (a) the momentum at anyt time t is

then momenta at and are

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d) impulse

Note that by part (b) this is the same as the difference or change
in momentum, i.e,

ilustrating Theorem 3-6,

that impulse = change in momentum.

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30) A particle of mass moves along the -axis under the influence of a conservative
force field having potential . It the particle is located at positions and at
respective times and prove that If is the total energy

By the conservation of energy

, (1)
from which we obtain on considering the positive square root.

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, hence by integration
(2)

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31) a) If the particle of problem has potential and start from rest at , prove that
and b) describe the motion.
a) From equation of problem-30. since where
we find so that

Integration yields, , Since at . Then Or

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b) The particle oscillates back and forth along the -axis from to . The time for one
complete vibration or oscillation from back to again is called the period of the
oscillation and is given by
32) A particle of mass 3 units moves in the plane under the influence of a force
field having potential . The particle starts at time from rest at the point with
position vector . a) Set up the differential equations and conditions describing the
motion. b) solve the equations a).
c) Find the position at any time d) Find the velocity at any time
a)Since , the force field is , then by Newton's second law
, or in component form, using

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 (1)
Where at (2)
Using the fact that the particle starts at with velocity
b) from the second equation of (1), .
Substitution into first equation of (1) yields
(3)

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Solution give
Thus solutions are or
, the general solution for this homogeneous eqution is
(4)
Thus from we find, using (4)
(5)
using the conditions (2) and (4) and (5), we obtain solving simultaneously

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, therefore

c) The position at any time is

d) The velocity at any time is

,

we can also write,

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 y
38) Prove that in polar coordinates θ1
r1

Solution: Let (1)

Where G and H are to be determined. r

rsinθ
Since j
we have on using θ
x
i
rcosθ

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is the unit vector

So that
Similarly
so that

Or (2)

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Now,

using equation (1) and(2) this becomes

so that , then (1) becomes

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39) According to the theory of relativity, the mass of a particle is given by
where the speed, the rest mass, the speed of light and
a) Show that the time rate of doing work is given by
b) Deduce from (a) that the is

c) If is much less than , show that approximately.

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Solution:
a) By Newton's second Law
, then if is the work done,

as proved by direct differentiation.

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b) Since the work done=change in KE, we have
Time rate of work = time rate of change in KE or by part (a)
integrating
. To determine note that, by definition when or , so that , Hence we have

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c) For we use the binomial theorem,

then approximately.

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