Statics of Rigid Bodies

Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Module 1: Fundamental Concepts in Mechanics

References:
Beer, F. P., Johnston , E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2016). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics 11th Edition. McGraw-Hill
Education.
Singer, F. L. (n.d.). Engineering Mechanics 2nd Ed. Harper & Row, New York, Evanston & London.
Hibbeler, H. I. (2013). Engineering Mechanics: Statics 13th Edition Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Introduction:
It is not an understatement to say that forces affect everything around us. It is therefore important
for engineering students, to understand what a force is, as well as its various effects especially on
structures. This will enable them to effectively deal with forces for the various applications in the
field of engineering.
Intended Learning Outcomes:

Upon completion of this course, the students should be able to:
ILO 1: differentiate the attributes of forces and force derivatives
ILO 2: calculate the various effects and uses of forces
Topic Outcomes:
This module aims that the students will be able to:
 Learn the nature of a force
 Distinguish the action of forces and their effects. and represent them in diagrams
Science of Mechanics
Mechanics is a branch of the physical sciences that is concerned with the state of rest or motion
of bodies that are subjected to the action of forces. In general, this subject can be subdivided into
three branches: mechanics of rigid bodies, mechanics of deformable bodies and fluid mechanics.
Mechanics of rigid bodies is divided into two areas: statics and dynamics. Statics deals with
bodies that are either at rest or move with a constant velocity; whereas dynamics is concerned
with the accelerated motion of bodies. This course focuses on Statics.
 Mechanics is defined as the science that describes and predicts the conditions of rest or
motion of bodies under the action of forces.
 Mechanics is an applied physical science since it aims to explain and predict physical
phenomena and thus to lay the foundations for engineering applications.
Fundamental Concepts and Principles

The basic concepts used in mechanics are space, time, mass, and force. These concepts
cannot be truly defined; they should be accepted on the basis of our intuition and experience and
used as a mental frame of reference for our study of mechanics.
 The concept of space is associated with the position of a point P. We can define the
position of P by providing three lengths measured from a certain reference point, or
origin, in three given directions. These lengths are known as the coordinates of P.
 To define an event, it is not sufficient to indicate its position in space. We also need to
specify the time of the event.
 The concept of mass is used to characterize and compare bodies on the basis of certain
fundamental mechanical experiments. Two bodies of the same mass, for example, are
attracted by the earth in the same manner; they also offer the same resistance to a change
in translational motion.
 A force represents the action of one body on another. A force can be exerted by actual
contact, like a push or a pull, or at a distance, as in the case of gravitational or magnetic
forces. A force is characterized by its point of application, its magnitude and its direction;
a force is represented by a vector.
In Newtonian mechanics, space, time and mass are absolute concepts that are independent of
each other. On the other hand, the concept of force is not independent of the other three. The
resultant force acting on a body is related to the mass of the body and to the manner in which its
velocity varies with time.
Models or idealizations are used in mechanics in order to simplify application of the theory.
Three important idealizations in Mechanics are used in this course:
Particle. A particle has a mass, but a size that can be neglected. For example, the size of the
earth is insignificant compared to the size of its orbit, and therefore the earth can be modeled as a
particle when studying its orbital motion. When a body is idealized as a particle, the principles of
mechanics reduce to a rather simplified form since the geometry of the body will not be involved
in the analysis of the problem; we can assume that it occupies a single point in space.
Rigid Body. A rigid body can be considered as a combination of a large number of particles
in which all the particles remain at a fixed distance from one another, both before and after
applying a load. This model is important because the body’s shape does not change when a load
is applied, and so we do not have to consider the type of material from which the body is made.
In most cases the actual deformations occurring in structures, machines, mechanisms, and the
like are relatively small, and the rigid-body assumption is suitable for analysis.
Concentrated Force. A concentrated force represents the effect of a loading which is assumed
to act at a point on a body. We can represent a load by a concentrated force, provided the area
over which the load is applied is very small compared to the overall size of the body. An
example would be the contact force between a wheel and the ground.
The study of elementary mechanics rests on six fundamental principles, based on

experimental evidence:
 The Parallelogram Law for the Addition of Forces. Two forces acting on a particle
may be replaced by a single force, called their resultant, obtained by drawing the
diagonal of the parallelogram with sides equal to the given forces.
 The Principle of Transmissibility. The conditions of equilibrium or of motion of a rigid
body remain unchanged if a force acting at a given point of the rigid body is replaced by
a force of the same magnitude and same direction, but acting at a different point,
provided that the two forces have the same line of action.
 Newton’s Three Laws of Motion. Formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in the late
seventeenth century, these laws can be stated as follows:
First law. If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the particle remains at rest (if
originally at rest) or moves with constant speed in a straight line (if originally in motion).
Second law. If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero, the particle has
acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the resultant and in the direction of this
resultant force. This law can be stated as
F = ma
Where F, m, and a represent, respectively, the resultant force acting on the particle, the
mass of the particle, and the acceleration of the particle expressed in a consistent system
of units.
Third law. The forces of action and reaction between bodies on contact have the same
magnitude, same line of action, and opposite sense.
 Newton’s Law of Gravitation. Two particles of mass M and

m are mutually attracted with equal and opposite forces F
and –F of magnitude F, given by the formula
F = GMm / r2
Where r = the distance between the two particles and G = a universal constant called the
constant of gravitation.
Newton’s law of gravitation introduces the idea of an action exerted at a distance and
extends the range of application of Newton’s third law: the action F and the reaction –F in the
figure are equal and opposite, they have the same line of action.
Newton’s first and third laws, the parallelogram law of addition, and the principle of
transmissibility will provide us with the necessary and sufficient foundation for the entire study
of the statics of particles, rigid bodies, and systems of rigid bodies.
For more than two centuries, engineers have solved a tremendous number of problems
dealing with the conditions of rest and motion of rigid bodies, deformable bodies, and fluids by
applying these fundamental principles.
Systems of Units
 Associated with the four fundamental concepts discussed above are the so-called kinetic
units, i.e., the units of length, time, mass, and force.
 Basic Units: units of length, time and mass (may be defined arbitrarily)
 Derived Unit: unit of force.
International System of Units (SI Units)

 The base units are the units of length, mass, and time and they are called, respectively,
the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), and the second (s).
 The second was originally chosen to represent 1/86 400 of the mean solar day, but it is
now defined as the duration of 9 192 631 770 cycles of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between two levels of the fundamental state of the cesium-133 atom.
 The meter, originally defined as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to
either pole, is now defined as 1 650 763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red light
corresponding to a certain transition in an atom of krypton-86.
 The kilogram which is approximately equal to the mass of 0.001 m3 of water, is defined
as the mass of a platinum-iridium standard kept at the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures at Sevres, near Paris, France.
 The unit of force is a derived unit. It is called the newton (N) and is defined as the force
that gives acceleration of 1 m/s2 to a body of mass 1 kg.
 The SI units are said to form an absolute system of units. This means that the three base
units chosen are independent of the location where measurements are made. The meter,
the kilogram, and the second may be used anywhere on the earth; they may even be used
on another planet and still have the same significance.
SI Prefixes
Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol

1012 Tera T 10-2 centi c
109 Giga G 10-3 milli m
106 Mega M 10-6 micro µ
103 Kilo k 10-9 nano n
102 hecto h 10-12 pico p
101 deka da 10-15 femto f
10-1 deci d 10-18 atto a
Principal SI Units Used in Mechanics

Quantity Unit Symbol Formula
Acceleration Meter per second squared … m/s2

Angle Radian rad (1 revolution = 2 rad = 360°)
Angular acceleration Radian per second squared … rad/s2
Angular velocity Radian per second … rad/s
Area Square meter … m2
Density Kilogram per cubic meter … kg/m3
Energy Joule J N.m
Force Newton N kg.m/s2
Frequency Hertz Hz s-1
Impulse Newton-second … kg.m/s
Length Meter m Base unit
Mass Kilogram kg Base unit
Moment of a force Newton-meter … N.m
Power Watt W J/s
Pressure Pascal Pa N/m2
Stress Pascal Pa N/m2
Time Second s Base unit
Velocity Meter per second … m/s
Volume
Solids Cubic meter … m3
Liquids Liter L 10-3 m3
Work Joule J N.m
U.S. Customary Units and Their SI Equivalents

Quantity U.S. Customary Unit SI Equivalent
ft/s2 0.3048 m/s2
Acceleration
in./s2 0.0254 m/s2
ft2 0.0929 m2
Area
in2 645.2 mm2
Energy ft.lb 1.356 J
kip 4.448 kN
Force lb 4.448 N
oz 0.2780 N
Impulse lb.s 4.448 N.s
ft 0.3048 m
Length in. 25.40 mm
mi 1.609 km
oz mass 28.35 g
lb mass 0.4536 kg
Mass
slug 14.59 kg
ton 907.2 kg
lb.ft 1.356 N.m
Moment of a Force
lb.in 0.1130 N.m
Quantity U.S. Customary Unit SI Equivalent

Moment of Inertia
Of an area in4 0.4162 x 106 mm4
Of a mass lb.ft.s2 1.356 kg.m2
Momentum lb.s 4.448 kg.m/s
ft.lb/s 1.356 W
Power
hp 745.7 W
lb/ft2 47.88 Pa
Pressure or stress
lb/in2 (psi) 6.895 kPa
ft/s 0.3048 m/s
in./s 0.0254 m/s
Velocity
mi/h (mph) 0.4470 m/s
mi/h (mph) 1.609 km/h
ft3 0.02832 m3
Volume
in3 16.39 cm3
gal 3.785 L
Liquids
qt 0.9464 L
Work ft.lb 1.356 J
Vector vs Scalar Quantities

 Scalars: physical quantities that have magnitude but not direction such as volume, mass,
or energy, are represented by plain numbers to distinguish from vectors.
 Vectors: mathematical expressions possessing magnitude and direction, which add
according to the parallelogram law.
 Vectors are represented by arrows in diagram. The magnitude of a vector defines the
length of the arrow used to represent it.
 A vector used to represent force acting on a given particle has well-defined point of
application – namely, the particle itself.
 Fixed or bound vector: cannot be moved without modifying the conditions of the
problem.
 Free vector: may be freely moved in space (e.g. couples).
 Sliding vector: can be moved along their lines of action.
 Two vectors that have the same magnitude and the same direction are said to be equal,
whether or not they also have the same point of application; equal vectors may be
denoted by the same letter.
 The negative vector of a given vector P is defined as a vector having the same magnitude
as P and a direction opposite to that of P. The negative of the vector P is denoted by –P.
The vectors P and –P are commonly referred to as equal and opposite vectors. Clearly,
we have P + (-P) = 0.
Addition of Vectors
 The sum of the two vectors P and Q is obtained by attaching the two vectors to the same
point A and constructing a parallelogram, using P and Q as two adjacent sides.
 The diagonal that passes through A represents the sum of the vectors P and Q, denoted by
P + Q.
 Note that the magnitude of the vector P + Q is NOT, in general, equal to the sum P + Q
of the magnitudes of the vectors P and Q.
 Since the parallelogram constructed on the vectors P and Q does not depend upon the
order in which P and Q are selected, we conclude that the addition of two vectors is
commutative, and we write P + Q = Q + P
 Triangle Rule: an alternative method for determining the sum of two vectors, derived
from the parallelogram law. The sum of the two vectors thus can be found by arranging P
and Q in tip-to-tail fashion and then connecting the tail of P with the tip of Q.
 Subtraction of a vector is defined as the addition of the
corresponding negative vector. Thus, we determine the
vector P – Q, representing the difference between the
vectors P and Q, by adding to P the negative vector –Q.
We write P – Q = P + (-Q).
 The sum of three vectors (or more vectors) P, Q, and S
is obtained by first adding the vectors P and Q and then
adding the vector S to the vector P + Q. We write P + Q + S = (P + Q) + S
 If the given vectors are coplanar, i.e., if they are contained in the same plane, their sum
can be obtained graphically. For this case repeated application of the triangle rule is
simpler than applying parallelogram law.
 The repeated applications of triangle rule could be
eliminated and obtain the sum of the three vectors
directly.
 The result would be unchanged if the vectors Q and S is
replaced by their sum Q + S. We may thus write P + Q
+ S = (P + Q) + S = P + (Q + S) which expresses the
fact that vector addition is associative.
 In the case of two vectors, the addition of vectors has
been shown to be commutative. So, for the three vectors, we can write P + Q + S = (P +
Q) + S = S + (P + Q) = S + (Q + P) = S + Q + P. This expression shows that the order in
which several vectors are added together is immaterial.
Force on a Particle
 A force represents the action of one body on another. It is characterized by its point of
application, its magnitude, and its direction.
 Forces acting on a given particle have the same point of application.
 The magnitude of a force is characterized by a certain number of units.
 The direction of a force is defined by its line of action and the sense of the force. The line
of action is the infinite straight line along which the force acts; it is characterized by the
angle it forms with some fixed axis.
 The force itself is represented by a segment of that line; through the use of an appropriate
scale, the length of this segment may be chosen to represent the magnitude of the force.
 The sense of the force should be indicated by an arrowhead.
 It is important in defining a force to indicate its sense. Two forces having the same
magnitude and the same line of action but different sense, such as the forces shown
above, will have directly opposite effects on a particle.
Awareness for Learning

Owning your definition of the concept being discussed is important for your retention of
knowledge, or learning. For this purpose, simplicity and conciseness matters. This is greatly
facilitated by extracting the keywords that describe or define the concept and matching these
keywords as the definition of the concept. Is it correct to define a force as a push or a pull?
A very effective way to remember what is being learned is to arrange the concepts in a coherent
form such as a tabulation. Sort out what you learned about a force by filling up the table below:
Concept Definition Diagram(s) Properties/ Effects Formula
Force
Free-Body Diagram
 In practice, a problem in engineering mechanics is derived from an actual physical
situation. A sketch showing the physical conditions of the problem is known as a space
diagram.
 Large number of problems involving actual structures can be reduced to problems
concerning the equilibrium of a particle. The method is to choose a significant particle
and draw a separate diagram showing this particle and all the forces acting on it. Such a
diagram is called a free-body diagram. (The name derives from the fact that when
drawing the chosen body, or particle, it is “free” from all other bodies in the actual
situation.)
Real life application

Draw the free
body diagram of the
boy riding a swing
and trying to ride a
jeep as shown.
Exercises:
Illustrate the forces present in the following members/bodies by drawing their free body
diagrams following their lines of actions. Think also of at least 12 common everyday situations
that involve one or more forces. Illustrate them and then represent the forces in them by
superimposing the free body diagrams over the illustrations.
Module 2: Equivalent Force Systems

Education.
Introduction:
An entity as basic as a force can be represented and therefore analyzed using its different
equivalent configurations. This equivalence provides a simpler way of analysis which would not
have been possible otherwise. A thorough understanding of equivalent systems of forces is
indispensable.

Topic Outcomes:
 Numerically and graphically represent forces in a system
 Correctly use forces and their corresponding equivalents in analysis of force systems
Resolution of a Force into Components

 A single force F acting on a particle may be replaced
by two or more forces that, together, have the same
effect on the particle. These forces are called
components of the original force F, and the process of
substituting them for F is called resolving the force F
into components.
 Each force F can be resolved into an infinite number of
possible sets of components.
 Sets of two components P and Q are the most
important as far as practical application are concerned.
The number of ways in which a given force F may be
resolved into two components is unlimited.
Two cases in resolving the force F into components:

One of the two components, P, is known. We obtain the second
component, Q, by applying the triangle rule and joining the tip of P
to the tip of F. We can determine the magnitude and direction of Q
graphically or by trigonometry. Once we have determined Q, both
components P and Q should be applied at A.
 The line of action of each component is
known. We obtain the magnitude and sense of
the components by applying the parallelogram law and drawing
lines through the tip of F that are parallel to the given line of
action. This process leads to two well-defined components, P and
Q, which can be determined graphically or computed
trigonometrically by applying the law of sines.
Many other cases can be encountered; for example, the direction of one
component may be known, while the magnitude of the other component is to be as small as
possible. In all cases the appropriate triangle or parallelogram which satisfies the given
conditions is drawn.

Queries to help ensure clarity in your understanding:
why can components replace the original force?
what is the advantage of using mutually perpendicular component forces instead of the
original force?
Adding Force by Components
Adding forces using their components, especially

rectangular components. This method is often the most
convenient way to add forces and in practice, is the most
common approach.
Rectangular Components of a Force: Unit Vectors

 It is useful to resolve a force into two components
that are perpendicular to each other.
 A force F resolved into a component Fx along the x
axis and a component Fy along the y axis. The
parallelogram drawn to obtain the two components is a rectangle, and Fx and Fy are called
rectangular components.
 In determining the rectangular components of a force, you should think of the
construction lines shown in figure as being parallel to the x and y axes, rather than
perpendicular to these axes.
Force in Terms of Unit Vectors
 To simplify working with rectangular components,

two vectors of unit magnitude, directed respectively
along the positive x and y axes can be used. These
vectors are called unit vectors and are denoted by i
and j, respectively.
 Note that we can obtain the rectangular components Fx and Fy of a force F by multiplying
respectively the unit vectors i and j by appropriate scalars. We have
F Fi
x= x F Fj
y= y F = Fi + Fj
x y
 The scalars Fx and Fy are called the scalar components of the force F, whereas the actual
component forces Fx and Fy should be referred to as the vector components of F. The
vector as well as the scalar components of F may be referred as simply components of
F.
 Note that the scalar component Fx is positive when the vector component Fx has the same
sense as the unit vector i (i.e., the same sense as the positive x axis) and is negative when
Fx has the opposite sense. A similar conclusion holds for the sign of the scalar component
Fy.
Scalar Components
 Denoting by F the magnitude of the force F and by θ the angle between F and the x axis,
which is measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis (previous figure), the scalar
components of F may be expressed as
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
 These relations hold for any value of the angle θ from 0° to 360°, and they define the
signs as well as the absolute values of the scalar components Fx and Fy.
Direction of a Force
When a force F is defined by its rectangular components FX and FY, the angle θ defining its
direction can be found from
tan θ = Fy / Fx
The magnitude F of the force can be obtained by applying the Pythagorean Theorem,
F2 = Fx2 + Fy2
Or by using, FX = F cos θ FY = F sin θ
Addition of forces by summing x and y components

 When adding three or more forces, we cannot obtain any practical trigonometric solution
from the force polygon that defines the resultant of the forces.
 In this case, the best approach is to obtain an analytic solution of the problem by
resolving each force into two rectangular components.
 For example, there are three forces P, Q, and S acting on particle. Their resultant R is
defined by the relation R = P + Q + S.
 Resolving each force into its rectangular components:
Rxi + Ryj = Pxi + Pyj + Qxi + Qyj + Sxi + Syj
= (Px + Qx +Sx)i + (Py + Qy + Sy)j
 From this equation, we can say that
Rx = Px + Qx + Sx Ry = Py + Qy + Sy
or Rx = Fx Ry = Fy
 As conclusion, when several forces are acting on a particle, we obtain the scalar
components Rx and Ry of the resultant R by adding algebraically the corresponding
scalar components of the given forces.
R2 = ∑Rx2 + ∑Ry2.
Resultant of Forces
 Experimental evidence shows that two forces P and Q acting on a particle A can be
replace by a single force R that has the same effect on the particle. This force is called the
resultant of the forces P and Q.
 R can be obtained by constructing a parallelogram, using P and Q as two adjacent sides.

 The diagonal that passes through A represents the resultant.
 This method for finding the resultant is known as the parallelogram law for the addition
of two forces. This law is based on experimental evidence; it cannot be proved or derived
mathematically.
Resultant of Concurrent Forces

Consider a particle A acted upon by several coplanar
forces, i.e., by several forces contained in the same
plane. Since the forces considered here all pass
through A, they are also said to be concurrent. The
vectors representing the forces acting on A may be
added by the polygon rule (Fig. b). Since the use of the
polygon rule is equivalent to the repeated application
of the parallelogram law, the vector R thus obtained
represents the resultant of the given concurrent forces, i.e., the single force which has the same
effect on the particle A as the given forces. As indicated above, the order in which the vectors P,
Q, and S representing the given forces are added together is immaterial.
Resultant of Parallel Forces

 A parallel force system is one in which the action lines
of all the forces are parallel. The resultant of such a
system is determined when it is known in magnitude,
direction, and position.
 The difference between a concurrent and a parallel
force system is that in the former the position of the
resultant is known by inspection whereas in the latter it
is not.
 Consider the system of forces P, Q, and S shown in
figure. Select reference axes as shown, with the Y axis
parallel to the forces so that none of the forces have an
X component and the Y component of each force is its
own magnitude.
 X = 0 and Y = F where F is the algebraic summation of the forces. Therefore, R = F.
 To determine the position of R, select some convenient point O as a moment center and
employ the principle that the moment of a resultant equals the moment sum of its parts:
R · d = Mo

While memorizing the formula for the resultant of forces serves a purpose, it’s worth noting
that it is not a sort of magic formula. It is simply vector addition (F2 = X2 + Y2), hence the
formula for the resultant is R2 = ∑Rx2 + ∑Ry2. For space (three-dimensional) forces, this will
be R2 = ∑Rx2 + ∑Ry2 + ∑Rz2.
Query: if a resultant is computed from 5 forces, is it correct to call the 5 forces components?
Sample Problem 1. The link shown is subjected to two forces F1 and F2. Determine the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
First, we resolve each force into its x and y components,

then we sum these components algebraically.
∑Fx = 0; 600 cos 30° N - 400 sin 45° N = 0
Fx = 236.8 N
∑Fy = 0; 600 sin 30° N + 400 cos 45° N = 0
Fy = 582.8 N
The resultant force, has a magnitude of
R2 = (236.8 N)2 + (582.8 N)2
R = 629 N Ans.
From the vector addition,

θ = tan-1 (582.8 N / 236.8 N) = 67.9° Ans.
Sample Problem 2. Two tugboats are pulling a

barge. If the resultant of the forces exerted by the
tugboats is a 5-kN force directed along the axis of
the barge, determine (a) the tension in each of the
ropes, given that α = 45°, (b) the value of for
which the tension in rope 2 is minimum. (Ans. a. T1
= 3.7 kN, T2 = 2.6 kN; b. 60°)
Solution
a. Tension for α = 45°. Graphical Solution. The parallelogram law is

used; the diagonal (resultant) is known to be equal to 5000 lb and to
be directed to the right. The sides are drawn parallel to the ropes. If
the drawing is done to scale, we measure
T1 = 3700 lb, T2 = 2600 lb
Trigonometric Solution. The triangle rule can be used. We note that the triangle shown
represents half of the parallelogram shown above. Using the law of sines, we write
T1 / sin 45° = T2 / sin 30° = 5000 lb / sin 105°
Simplifying the equation, we obtain

T1 = 3660 lb T2 = 2590 lb
b. Value of a for Minimum T2. To determine the value of

a for which the tension in rope 2 is minimum, the triangle
rule is again used. In the sketch shown, line 1-1’ is the
known direction of T1. Several possible directions of T2
are shown by the lines 2-2’. We note that the minimum
value of T2 occurs when T1 and T2 are perpendicular. The
minimum value of T2 is
T2 = (5000 lb) sin 30° = 2500 lb
Corresponding values of T1 and α are

T1 = (5000 lb) cos 30° = 4330 lb
α = 90° - 30° α = 60°
Exercise Problems:
1) A steel tank is to be positioned in an excavation.

Knowing that α = 20°, determine by trigonometry
(a) the required magnitude of the force P if the
resultant R of the two forces applied at A is to be
vertical, (b) the corresponding magnitude of R.
(Ans. P = 392#, R = 346#)
2) Two forces are applied as shown to a hook. Determine

graphically the magnitude and direction of their resultant using
(a) the parallelogram law, (b) the triangle rule. (Ans. R= 1400
N, 48° N of E)
3) Two structural members B and C are bolted to bracket A.

Knowing that both members are in tension and that P = 10
kN and Q = 15 kN, determine graphically the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force exerted on the bracket using
(a) the parallelogram law, (b) the triangle rule. (Ans. R = 20
kN, 20° S of W)
4) A stake is being pulled out of the ground by means of two

ropes as shown. Knowing that ∝ =30°, determine by
trigonometry (a) the magnitude of the force P so that the
resultant force exerted on the stake is vertical, (b) the
corresponding magnitude of the resultant. (Ans. a. P = 101.43
N, b. R = 196.60 N)
5) Two forces P and Q are applied to the lid of a storage

bin as shown. Knowing that P = 48 N and Q = 60 N,
determine by trigonometry the magnitude and direction of
the resultant of the two forces. (Ans. R = 104.37 N, 86.71°
N of W)
Moment of a Force
 The moment of a force about an axis or line is the measure of its ability to produce
turning or twisting about the axis.
 The magnitude of the moment of a force about an axis which is perpendicular to a plane
containing the line of action of the force is defined as the
product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the
axis to the line of action of the force (M = Fd). The distance d
is frequently called the moment arm of the force.
 The axis of moments, which is perpendicular to the plane of
forces, appears as a point commonly called the center of
moments. In the figure, point O is the center of moments.
 The center of moments is really the intersection of the axis of
moments with the plane of the forces.
 The unit of moment is correspondingly the product of the dimensional units of force and
distance (N-m or lb-ft).
The Principle of Moments

Varignon’s Theorem. The moment of a
force is equivalent to the sum of the
moments of its components.
Application: In some cases it is more

convenient to determine the moment of a
force from the sum of the moments of its
components rather than from the force
itself. For example, suppose a force F, x
making an angle with the X axis, passes
through a point A having the coordinates
(x, y).
In this case it is convenient to calculate the moment arm d. By resolving the force into its
components Fx and Fy at A, the moment arm of Fx about O is the coordinate distance y, and
the moment arm of Fy about O is the coordinate distance x. Then the moment of F is
expressed by
MO = F · d = Fx · y – Fy · x
From which the value of the moment arm d may be computed if desired.
To solve for the intercepts of the line of action of F with X and Y axes, replace F by its
components at B and C in figure. Then, we have
MO = FX · iY
MO = FY · iX
Note that Fy at B and Fx at C both have zero moment about O since they both pass through O and
therefore have zero moment arms.
Couples
 Sometimes the resultant of a force system will be
zero in magnitude and yet have a resultant moment
sum.
 The special case in which the resultant has zero
magnitude but does have a moment is said to
consist of a couple.
 Couple is made up of two equal, parallel,
oppositely directed forces.
 The perpendicular distance between the action lines of the forces is called the moment
arm of the couple.
 Their moment sum is constant and independent of the moment center. This is proved by
selecting moment centers at A and B (see figure) to give respectively
F · d = F (d + a) – F · a
 To conclude, the moment of a couple C is equal to the product of one of the forces
composing the couple multiplied by the perpendicular distance between their action lines.
(C = F · d)
 Since the only effect of a couple is to produce a moment that is independent of the
moment center, the effect of a couple is unchanged if
a. The couple is rotated through any angle in its plane
b. The couple is shifted to any other position in its plane
c. The couple is shifted to a parallel plane
 For the somewhat special case in which the given force system is composed entirely of
couples in the same or parallel planes, the resultant consists of another couple equal to the
algebraic summation of the moment sum of the original couples.
Resolution of a force into a force and a couple

 It sometimes becomes necessary to replace force acting at a given point by equal force
acting through some other point. This introduces a couple.
 For example, in figure a, let a known force F be acting through A. By adding two
collinear forces F’ and F” equal and parallel to F at B, the effect of F is unchanged. The
forces F and F” form a couple having the moment arm d. Since the moment of a couple is
independent of its moment center, it is convenient to represent this couple by the curved
vector C = Fd in figure b. F and F” having been disposed of, there remains only F’ which
acts at B. The original force at A has therefore been replaced by equal force acting at B
plus a couple C having the magnitude Fd.
Resolution of a Force into a Force and a Couple
Always remember:
 Adding two or more couples. This results in a new couple, the moment of which is
obtained by adding vectorially the moments of the given couples.
 Replacing a force with an equivalent force-couple system at a specified point. The
force of a force-couple system is equal to the original force, whereas the required couple
vector is equal to the moment of the original force about the given point. In addition, it is
important to note that the force and the couple vector are perpendicular to each other.
Conversely, it follows that a force-couple system can be reduced to a single force only if
the force and couple vector are mutually perpendicular (see the next paragraph).
 Replacing a force-couple system (with F perpendicular to M) with a single
equivalent force. The requirement that F and M be mutually perpendicular is satisfied in
all two-dimensional problems. The single equivalent force is equal to F and is applied in
such a way that its moment about the original point of application is equal to M.
Sample Problem. Four tugboats are bringing

an ocean liner to its pier. Each tugboat exerts a
5000# force in the direction shown. Determine
(a) the equivalent force couple system at the
foremast O, (b) the point on the hull where a
single, more powerful tugboat should push to
produce the same effect as the original four
tugboats.
Solution.
a. Force-Couple System at O. Each of the given forces is resolved into components. The force-
couple system at O equivalent to their resultant force R and a couple, the moment of which is
equal to MO as follows:
R2 = [5000 x (cos 60° + 3/5 + 0 + cos 45°)]2 + [5000 x (-sin 60° - 4/5 -1 + sin 45°)]2
R2 = (9035.53)2 + (-9794.59)2, R = 13325.72 kips
MO = 5000 x (50’ x cos 60° + 70’ x 3/5 + 0 -70 x cos 45°) + 5000 x (-90’ x sin 60° + 100’ x 4/5
+ 400’ x 1 -300’ x sin 45°) = 1037.14 kip-ft
b. Single Tugboat. The force exerted by a single tugboat

must be equal to R, and its point of application A must be
such that the moment of R about O is equal to MO:
MO = Rx · 70’ + Ry · x
1037.14 kip-ft = 9035.53 · 70’ + 9794.59 x
x = 41.31 ft
Exercise Problems:
1) In figure, assuming clockwise moments as positive,

compute the moment of a force F = 450 lb and of force P =
361 lb about points A, B, C, and D.
(Ans. F: MA = 1350 lb-ft CCW, MB = 2160 lb-ft CW, Mc =
1350 lb-ft CW, MD = 810 lb-ft CW; P: MA = 1.53 x 10-3 lb-
ft CW or 0, MB = 300 lb-ft CCW, Mc = 1201.48 lb-ft CCW,
MD = 1201.48 lb-ft CW)
2) Locate the amount and position of the

resultant of the loads acting on the Fink
truss shown in figure.
(Ans. R = 3400 lb downward, d = 12. 06
ft to the right of A)
3) Determine the resultant of the four parallel forces

acting on the rocker arm. (Ans. R = 50 lb downward,
d = 4 ft to the right of O)
4) Replace the couple and force shown by an equivalent single

force applied to the lever. Determine the distance from the shaft
to the point of application of this equivalent force. (Ans. F =
400 N downward, distance from shaft to pt. of application = 420
mm)
5) Two 80-N forces are applied as shown to the

corners B and D of a rectangular plate. (a) Determine
the moment of the couple formed by the two forces by
resolving each force into horizontal and vertical
components and adding the moments of the two
resulting couples. (b) Use the result obtained to
determine the perpendicular distance between lines
BE and DF. (Ans. a. 7.32 Nm CCW, b. 91.5 mm)
6) The three-step pulley shown in figure is subjected to the given

couples. Compute the value of the resultant couple. Also,
determine the forces acting at the rim of the middle pulley that
are required to balance the given system. (Ans. C = 760 lb-in
CCW, F = 63.33 lb CCW)
7) A worker tries to move a rock by applying a

360-N force to a steel bar as shown. If two
workers attempt to move the same rock by
applying a force at A and a parallel force at C,
determine these two forces so that they will be
equivalent to the single 360-N force shown in
the figure. (Ans. A = 168 N 50° S of W, C =
192 N 50° S of W)
8) Compute the resultant of the three forces shown

in figure. Locate its intersection with X and Y axes.
(Ans. R = 957.74 lb, 32.17° S of E, ix = 2.20 ft right
of O, iy = 1.38 ft above O)
9) Determine completely the resultant of the forces acting on the

step pulley shown in figure. (Ans. F = 1254.89 lb, 44.21° S of E)
10) A 4.80-m-long beam is subjected to

the forces shown. Reduce the given
system of forces to (a) an equivalent
force-couple system at A, (b) an
equivalent force-couple system at B, (c) a
single force or resultant. Note: Since the
reactions at the supports are not included
in the given system of forces, the given
system will not maintain the beam in
equilibrium. (Ans. a. 1880 Nm CW, b. 1000 Nm CCW, c. 3.13 m right of A)
Module 3: Equilibrium
Education.
Introduction:
Forces affect almost every area of human life but it is the equilibrium of force systems that
enables life as we know it. It is also the state of equilibrium that provides some means of
analyzing forces that lead to finite solutions and therefore practicable applications. The concept
of equilibrium provides a key to understanding how order is possible amidst the countless
interacting forces.

Topic Outcomes:
 Use equilibrium concepts to determine forces acting in a system
 Apply equilibrium in computing support reaction forces acting in a system
Condition for the Equilibrium of a Particle

A particle is said to be in equilibrium if it remains at rest if originally at rest, or has a constant
velocity if originally in motion. Most often, however, the term “equilibrium” or, more
specifically, “static equilibrium” is used to describe an object at rest. To maintain equilibrium, it
is necessary to satisfy Newton’s first law of motion, which requires the resultant force acting on
a particle to be equal to zero, stated mathematically as ∑F = 0 where ∑F is the vector sum of all
the forces acting on the particle.
This condition is both a necessary and a sufficient condition for equilibrium. This follows from
Newton’s second law of motion, which can be written as ∑F = ma. And since this force system is
equal to zero, then ma = 0, and therefore the particle’s acceleration a = 0.
Consequently, the particle indeed moves with constant velocity or remains at rest.
Equilibrium of a Particle
 When the resultant of all the forces acting on a particle is zero, the particle is in
equilibrium.
 A particle acted upon by two forces is in equilibrium if the two forces have the same
magnitude and the same line of action but opposite sense.
 A case of equilibrium of a particle is represented in figure (a), where four forces are
shown acting on particle A. We use the polygon rule to determine the resultant of the
given forces (figure b). Starting from point O with F1 and arranging the forces in tip-to-
tail fashion, we find that the tip of F4 coincides with the starting point O. Thus, the
resultant R of the given system of forces is zero, and the particle is in equilibrium.
 the conditions for the equilibrium of a particle is expressed algebraically as: R= F= 0

 Resolving each force F into rectangular components, we have
(Fxi+ Fyj)= 0 or (Fx)i+(Fy)j = 0
 We conclude that the necessary and sufficient conditions for the equilibrium of a particle
are (scalar equations) Fx = 0 Fy = 0
 When the force and the couple are both equal to zero, the external forces form a system
equivalent to zero, and the rigid body is said to be in equilibrium.
F=0 MO = d x F = 0
 For a rigid body in equilibrium, the system of external forces imparts no translational or
rotational motion to the body.
 In addition to the forces applied to a structure, its supports exert reactions on it. Specific
reaction is associated with each type of support.
Equations of equilibrium in two dimensions
Fx = 0 Fy = 0 MA = 0
Where A is any point in the plane of the structure.

These three equations can be solved for no more than three unknowns.
Remember that unknown forces include reactions and that the number of unknowns
corresponding to a given reaction depends upon the type of support or connection causing that
reaction.
For example, consider Fig. a, in which the truss shown is in

equilibrium and is subjected to the given forces P, Q, and S.
The truss is held in place by a pin at A and a roller at B. The
pin prevents point A from moving by exerting a force on the
truss that can be resolved into the components Ax and Ay. The
roller keeps the truss from rotating about A by exerting the
vertical force B. The free-body diagram of the truss is shown
in Fig. b; it includes the reactions Ax, Ay, and B as well as the
applied forces P, Q, and S (in x and y component form) and
the weight W of the truss.
Since the truss is in equilibrium, the sum of the moments

about A of all of the forces shown in Fig. b is zero, or MA =
0. We can use this equation to determine the magnitude B
because the equation does not contain Ax or Ay. Then, since
the sum of the x components and the sum of the y
components of the forces are zero, we write the equations Fx
= 0 and Fy = 0. From these equations, we can obtain the components Ax and Ay, respectively.
In practice, it is desirable to choose equations of equilibrium containing only one unknown, since
this eliminates the necessity of solving simultaneous equations. You can obtain equations
containing only one unknown by summing moments about the point of intersection of the lines
of action of two unknown forces or, if these forces are parallel, by summing force components in a
direction perpendicular to their common direction.
Reactions for a Two-Dimensional Structure

The reactions exerted on a two-dimensional structure fall into three categories that correspond to
three types of supports or connections.
1. Reactions Equivalent to a Force with a Known Line of Action. Supports and

connections causing reactions of this type include rollers, rockers, frictionless surfaces, short
links and cables, collars on frictionless rods, and frictionless pins in slots. Each of these supports
and connections can prevent motion in one direction only. Each reaction involves one unknown–
–specifically, the magnitude of the reaction. In problem solving, you should denote this
magnitude by an appropriate letter. The line of action of the reaction is known and should be
indicated clearly in the free-body diagram.
The sense of the reaction must be for cases of a frictionless surface (toward the free body)
or a cable (away from the free body). The reaction can be directed either way in the cases of
double-track rollers, links, collars on rods, or pins in slots. Generally, we assume that single-
track rollers and rockers are reversible, so the corresponding reactions can be directed either
way.
2. Reactions Equivalent to a Force of Unknown Direction and Magnitude. Supports and

connections causing reactions of this type include frictionless pins in fitted holes, hinges, and
rough surfaces. They can prevent translation of the free body in all directions, but they cannot
prevent the body from rotating about the connection. Reactions of this group involve two
unknowns and are usually represented by their x and y components. In the case of a rough
surface, the component normal to the surface must be directed away from the surface.
3. Reactions Equivalent to a Force and a Couple. These reactions are caused by fixed
supports that oppose any motion of the free body and thus constrain it completely. Fixed
supports actually produce forces over the entire surface of contact; these forces, however, form a
system that can be reduced to a force and a couple. Reactions of this group involve three
unknowns usually consisting of the two components of the force and the moment of the couple.
When the sense of an unknown force or couple is not readily apparent, do not attempt to
determine it. Instead, arbitrarily assume the sense of the force or couple; the sign of the answer
will indicate whether the assumption is correct or not.

To remember a number of interrelated concepts, it is helpful to sort out their similarities and
differences and counter-match them among those of the other concepts, which can be done
conveniently using a tabulation
Can you summarize the topics covered by filling up the tabulation below?
what is the advantage of using mutually perpendicular component forces instead of the
Concept force?Definition
original Diagram(s) Properties/ Effects Formula
magnitude, direction,
Force a push or a pull
line of action
Components
Resultant
Moment
Couple
Reaction
Statically Indeterminate Reactions and Partial Constraints
 Completely Constrained and Statically Determinate. In the two examples above, the
types of supports used were such that the rigid body could not possibly move under the
given loads or under any other loading conditions. In such cases, the rigid body is said to
be completely constrained. Recall that the reactions corresponding to these supports
involved three unknowns and could be determined by solving the three equations of
equilibrium. When such a situation exists, the reactions are said to be statically
determinate.
 Statically Indeterminate. A situation in which the number of unknowns exceed the

number of equilibrium equations available. Take note that there are only three
independent equilibrium equations available. Example, the truss shown is held by pins at
A and B. These supports provide more constraints than are necessary to keep the truss
from moving under the given loads or under any other loading conditions. Note from the
free-body diagram that the corresponding reactions involve four unknowns.
 Partially Constrained. A situation in which the constraints provided by the supports are
not sufficient to keep the object from moving. In such a case, the three equations of
equilibrium are not satisfied. There are fewer unknowns than equations. Example, the
supports holding the truss shown in figure consist of rollers at A and B. Clearly, the
constraints provided by these supports are not sufficient to keep the truss from moving.
Although they prevent any vertical motion, the truss is free to move horizontally. It thus
observes that the equilibrium of the truss cannot be maintained under general loading
conditions.
If a rigid body is to be completely constrained and if the reactions at its supports are to
be statically determinate, there must be as many unknowns as there are equations of
equilibrium. When this condition is not satisfied, it can be certain that either the rigid
body is not completely constrained or that the reactions at its supports are not statically
determinate. It is also possible that the rigid body is not completely constrained and that
the reactions are statically indeterminate.
 Improperly Constrained. The fact that the number of unknowns is equal to the number
of equations is no guarantee that a body is completely constrained or that the reactions at
its supports are statically determinate. Consider the figure which shows a truss held by
rollers at A, B, and E. It has three unknown reactions of A, B, and E, but the equation
Fx=0 is not satisfied unless the sum of the horizontal components of the applied forces
happens to be zero. Although there are a sufficient number of constraints, these
constraints are not properly arranged, so the truss is free to move horizontally. Therefore,
the truss is improperly constrained. Since only two equilibrium equations are left for
determining three unknowns, the reactions are statically indeterminate. Thus, improper
constraints also produce static indeterminacy.
A rigid body is improperly constrained whenever the supports (even though they may
provide a sufficient number of reactions) are arranged in such a way that the reactions
must be either concurrent or parallel.

Mechanics speaks of two equilibrium states: static and dynamic. What are the keywords for
each of these equilibrium states? Will it be sufficient to define static equilibrium as the state of
rest of a body (or a system of bodies)?
Query: ∑F = 0 means that the net effect of all the forces acting on a system is zero. Will
equilibrium exist if there is zero force, no force at all?
Number of
Support or Connection Reaction
Unknowns
2
Reactions of Supports and Connections In Two Dimensions
In summary, to be sure that a two-dimensional rigid body is completely constrained and

that the reactions at its supports are statically determinate, you should verify that the reactions
involve three - and only three - unknowns and that the supports are arranged in such a way that
they do not require the reactions to be either concurrent or parallel.
A further note on drawing a Free-Body Diagram.
All the forces acting on the particle must be account for when drawing a FBD especially in
conditions of equilibrium. The following 3 steps are necessary to construct a free-body diagram:
Draw outlined shape. Imagine the particle to be isolated or cut “free” from its surroundings
by drawing its outlined shape.
Show all forces. Indicate on this sketch all the forces that act on the particle. These forces can be
active forces, which tend to set the particle in motion, or they can be reactive forces which are
the result of the constraints or supports that tend to prevent motion. To account for all these
forces, it may be helpful to trace around the particle’s boundary, carefully noting each force
acting on it.
Identify Each Force. The forces that are known should be labeled with their proper magnitudes
and directions. Letters are used to represent the magnitudes and directions of forces that are
unknown.
Test your learning

Draw the FBD
of the boy riding a
swing and trying to
ride a jeep as shown
including the
reactions at the
points of supports at
the hands and feet.
Sample Problem 1. A fixed crane has a mass of 1000 kg

and is used to lift a 2400-kg crate. It is held in place by a
pin at A and a rocker at B. The center of gravity of the
crane is located at G. Determine the components of the
reactions at A and B.
Solution.
A free-body diagram of the crane is drawn. By multiplying

the masses of the crane and of the crate by g = 9.81 m/s2,
we obtain the corresponding weights, that is, 9810 N or 9.81 kN, and 23,500 N or 23.5 kN. The
reaction at pin A is a force of unknown direction; it is represented by its components Ax and Ay.
The reaction at the rocker B is perpendicular to the rocker surface; thus, it is horizontal. We
assume that Ax, Ay, and B act in the directions shown.
Determination of B. We express that the sum of the moments of all external forces about point A
is zero. The equation obtained will contain neither Ax nor Ay, since the moments of Ax and Ay
about A are zero. Multiplying the magnitude of each force by its perpendicular distance from A,
we write
∑MA = 0: B(1.5 m) - (9.81 kN)(2 m) - (23.5 kN)(6 m) = 0

B = 107.1 kN
Since the result is positive, the reaction is directed as

assumed.
Determination of Ax. The magnitude of Ax is determined by

expressing that the sum of the horizontal components of all external forces is zero.
∑Fx = 0: Ax + B = 0 = Ax + 107.1 kN = 0
Ax = -107.1 kN
Since the result is negative, the sense of Ax is opposite to that assumed originally.
Determination of Ay. The sum of the vertical components must also equal zero.
∑Fy = 0: Ay - 9.81 kN - 23.5 kN = 0

Ay = 33.3 kN
Adding vectorially the components Ax and Ay, the reaction at A is 112.2 kN at 17.3° (W of N).
Check. The values obtained for the reactions can be checked by recalling that the sum of the
moments of all of the external forces about any point must be zero. For example, considering
point B, we write
∑MB = -(9.81 kN)(2 m) - (23.5 kN)(6 m) + (107.1 kN)(1.5 m) = 0
Sample Problem 2. Three loads are applied to a beam as

shown. The beam is supported by a roller at A and by a
pin at B. Neglecting the weight of the beam, determine
the reactions at A and B when P = 15 kips.
Solution.
A free-body diagram of the beam is drawn. The reaction

at A is vertical and is denoted by A. The reaction at B is
represented by components Bx and By. Each component
is assumed to act in the direction shown.
Equilibrium Equations. We write the following three

equilibrium equations and solve for the reactions
indicated:
∑Fx = 0: Bx = 0
∑MA = 0: -(15 kips)(3 ft) + By(9 ft) - (6 kips)(11 ft) - (6 kips)(13 ft) = 0
By = 21.0 kips
∑MB = 0: -A(9 ft) + (15 kips)(6 ft) - (6 kips)(2 ft) - (6 kips)(4 ft) = 0
A = 6.00 kips
Check. The results are checked by adding the vertical components of all of the external forces:
∑Fy = 6.00 kips - 15 kips + 21.0 kips - 6 kips - 6 kips = 0
Remark. In this problem the reactions at both A and B are vertical; however, these reactions are
vertical for different reasons. At A, the beam is supported by a roller; hence the reaction cannot
have any horizontal component. At B, the horizontal component of the reaction is zero because it
must satisfy the equilibrium equation ∑Fx = 0 and because none of the other forces acting on the
beam has a horizontal component.
We could have noticed at first glance that the reaction at B was vertical and dispensed with the
horizontal component Bx. This, however, is a bad practice. In following it, we would run the risk
of forgetting the component Bx when the loading conditions require such a component (i.e.,
when a horizontal load is included). Also, the component Bx was found to be zero by using and
solving an equilibrium equation, ∑Fx = 0. By setting Bx equal to zero immediately, we might
not realize that we actually make use of this equation and thus might lose track of the number of
equations available for solving the problem.
Exercise Problems:
1) A load of lumber of weight W = 25 kN is

being raised by a mobile crane. The weight of
boom ABC and the combined weight of the
truck and driver are as shown. Determine the
reaction at each of the two (a) front wheels H,
(b) rear wheels K. (Ans. H = 34.04 kN each,
K = 4.96 kN each)
2) The frame shown supports part of the roof of a

small building. Knowing that the tension in the
cable is 150 kN, determine the reaction at the fixed
end E.
3) A loading car is at rest on a track forming an angle of 25°

with the vertical. The gross weight of the car and its load is 25
kN, and it acts at a point 750 mm from the track, halfway
between the two axles. The car is held by a cable attached 600
mm from the track. Determine the tension in the cable and the
reaction at each pair of wheels. (Ans. T = 22.66 kN, R1 = 2.56
kN, R2 = 8 kN)
4) A sailor is being rescued using a boatswain’s

chair that is suspended from a pulley that can roll
freely on the support cable ACB and is pulled at a
constant speed by cable CD. Knowing that = 30°
and β = 10° and that the combined weight of the
boatswain’s chair and the sailor is 900 N, determine
the tension (a) in the support cable ACB, (b) in the
traction cable CD. Ans. (a) 1.213 kN, (b) 166.3 N
5) A gardener uses a 60-N wheelbarrow to transport a 250-N

bag of fertilizer. What force must she exert on each handle?
(Ans. F = 42 N each handle)
6) The maximum allowable value of each of the

reactions is 180 N. Neglecting the weight of the
beam, determine the range of the distance d for
which the beam is safe. (Ans. 0.15 m ≤ d ≤ 0.4 m)
7) Two cables are tied together at C and are loaded as

shown. Determine the tension (a) in cable AC, (b) in
cable BC. (Ans. (a) 352 N, (b) 261 N)
8) For the beam and loading shown, determine

(a) the reaction at A, (b) the tension in cable
BC. (Ans. Ax = 0, Ay = 980 N , BC = 560 N )
9) Collar A is connected as shown to a 200-N

load and can slide on a frictionless horizontal
rod. Determine the magnitude of the force P
required to maintain the equilibrium of the
collar when (a) x = 90 mm, (b) x = 300 mm.
(Hint: The tension in the rope is the same on
each side of a simple pulley) Ans. (a) 43.9 N,
(b) 120 N
10) Two cables are tied together at C and

loaded as shown. Determine the tension (a) in
cable AC, (b) in cable BC. (Ans. (a) 2.50 kN,
(b) 2.72 kN)
11) Two links AB and DE are connected by a

bell crank as shown. Knowing that the tension
in link AB is 720 N, determine (a) the tension
in link DE, (b) the reaction at C. (Ans. DE =
600 N , C = 1252.84 N 69.83° N of E)
12) A welded connection is in equilibrium under

the action of the four forces shown. Knowing that
FA = 8 kN and FB = 16 kN, determine the
magnitudes of the other two forces.
(Ans. FC = 6.40 kN, FD = 4.80 kN)
Module 4: Friction
Reference:
Education.
Introduction:
Although the wearing effect of friction in materials is undesirable, frictional forces have much
useful application in engineering. It is therefore important for engineering students, to understand
the mechanics of friction and frictional force. This will enable them to effectively deal with
friction in its various applications in the field of engineering.

ILO 3: examine the interplay of the attributes of forces in their various applications
Topic Outcomes:
This module aims that the students will be able to learn the following:
 Recognize friction in force systems and
 Determine the actions of friction in surfaces such as in wedges, square-threaded screws
and flat belt.
When two surfaces are in contact, tangential forces, called friction forces, always develop if
you attempt to move one surface with respect to the other.
Two types of friction:
 Fluid friction or viscosity develops between layers of fluid moving at different
velocities.
 Dry friction, sometimes called Coulomb friction, develops in situations involving
rigid bodies that are in contact along unlubricated surfaces.
Theory of Dry Friction. Consider the effects caused by pulling horizontally on a block of
uniform weight W which is resting on a rough horizontal surface that is nonrigid or deformable,
Fig. a. The upper portion of the block, however, can be considered rigid. As shown on the free-
body diagram of the block, Fig. b, the floor exerts an uneven distribution of both normal force
ΔNn and frictional force ΔFn along the contacting surface. For equilibrium, the normal forces
must act upward to balance the block’s weight W, and the frictional forces act to the left to
prevent the applied force P from moving the block to the right. Close examination of the
contacting surfaces between the floor and block reveals how these frictional and normal forces
develop, Fig. c. It can be seen that many microscopic irregularities exist between the two
surfaces and, as a result, reactive forces ΔRn are developed at each point of contact. * As shown,
each reactive force contributes both a frictional component ΔFn and a normal component ΔNn.
The effect of the distributed normal and frictional loadings is indicated by their resultants N and
F on the free-body diagram, Fig. d. Notice that N acts a distance x to the right of the line of
action of W, Fig. d. This location, which coincides with the centroid or geometric center of the
normal force distribution in Fig. b, is necessary in order to balance the “tipping effect” caused by
P. For example, if P is applied at a height h from the surface, Fig. d, then moment equilibrium
about point O is satisfied if Wx = Ph or x = Ph/W.
Laws of Dry Friction
 Place a block of weight W on a horizontal plane surface. The forces acting on the block
are its weight W and the reaction of the surface. Since the weight has no horizontal
component, the reaction of the surface also has no horizontal component; the reaction is
therefore normal to the surface and is represented by N (fig. a).
 Now suppose that you apply a horizontal force P to the block. If P is small, the block
does not move; some other horizontal force must therefore exist, which balances P. This
other force is the static-friction force F, which is actually the resultant of a great number
of forces acting over the entire surface of contact between the block & the plane (fig. b).
 If you increase the force P, the friction force F also increases, continuing to oppose P,
until its magnitude reaches a certain maximum value Fm. If P is further increased, the
friction force cannot balance it anymore, and the block starts sliding. As soon as the
block has started in motion, the magnitude of F drops from Fm to a lower value Fk. From
then on, the block keeps sliding with increasing velocity while the friction force, denoted
by Fk and called the kinetic-friction force, remains approximately constant (fig.c).
Coefficients of Friction
 The maximum value Fm of the static friction force is proportional to the normal
component N of the reaction of the surface. We have
Static Friction Fm = µN where µs = coefficient of static friction
 Similarly, the magnitude Fk of the kinetic-friction force can be expressed in the form Fk =
µkN, where µk = coefficient of kinetic friction.
 The coefficients of friction μs and μk do not depend upon the area of the surfaces in
contact. Both coefficients, however, depend strongly on the nature of the surfaces in
contact.
 Approximate values of coefficients of static friction for various combinations of dry
surfaces are given in the Table 1. Since coefficients of friction are dimensionless
quantities, the values given in Table 1 can be used with any system of units.
Table 1 Approximate Values of Coefficient of Static Friction for Dry Surfaces

Metal on metal 0.15–0.60
Metal on wood 0.20–0.60
Metal on stone 0.30–0.70
Metal on leather 0.30–0.60
Wood on wood 0.25–0.50
Wood on leather 0.25–0.50
Stone on stone 0.40–0.70

Earth on earth 0.20–1.00
Rubber on concrete 0.60–0.90
Four different situations that can occur when a rigid body is in contact with a horizontal surface:
1. The forces applied to the body do not tend to move it along the surface of contact; there is
no friction force (Fig. a).
2. The applied forces tend to move the body along the surface of contact but are not large
enough to set it in motion. We can find the static-friction force F that has developed by
solving the equations of equilibrium for the body. Since there is no evidence that F has
reached its maximum value, the equation Fm = μsN cannot be used to determine the
friction force (Fig. b).
3. The applied forces are such that the body is just about to
slide. We say that motion is impending. The friction force F
has reached its maximum value Fm and, together with the
normal force N, balances the applied forces. Both the
equations of equilibrium and the equation Fm = μsN can be
used. Note that the friction force has a sense opposite to the
sense of impending motion (Fig. c).
4. The body is sliding under the action of the applied forces,
and the equations of equilibrium no longer apply. However,
F is now equal to Fk, and we can use the equation Fk = μkN.
The sense of Fk is opposite to the sense of motion (Fig. d).
Angles of Friction
 Consider again a block of weight W resting on a horizontal plane surface. If no horizontal
force is applied to the block, the resultant R reduces to the normal force N (Fig. a).
 If the applied force P has a horizontal component Px that tends to move the block, force
R has a horizontal component F and, thus, forms an angle ɸ with the normal to the
surface (Fig. b).
 If you increase Px until motion becomes impending, the angle between R and the vertical
grows and reaches a maximum value (Fig. c). This value is called the angle of static
friction and is denoted by ɸs.
Angle of Static Friction tan ɸs = Fm/N = µsN/N

tan ɸs = µs
 If motion actually takes place, the magnitude of the friction force drops to Fk; similarly,
the angle between R and N drops to a lower value ɸk, which is called the angle of kinetic
friction (Fig. d).
Angle of Kinetic Friction tan ɸk = Fk/N = µkN/N

tan ɸk = µk

When asked to draw a FBD of the forces acting on a block with weight “W” resting on an
inclined plane, you will most probably draw three forces: W, F and N. Have you ever asked
yourself why?
Query for learning: Following Newton’s 3rd law, should not the diagram show only the
weight “W” and a collinear reaction “R” opposite it?
Characteristics of Dry Friction. As a result of experiments that pertain to the foregoing

discussion, we can state the following rules which apply to bodies subjected to dry friction.
• The frictional force acts tangent to the contacting surfaces in a direction opposed to the motion
or tendency for motion of one surface relative to another.
• The maximum static frictional force Fs that can be developed is independent of the area of
contact, provided the normal pressure is not very low nor great enough to severely deform or
crush the contacting surfaces of the bodies.
• The maximum static frictional force is generally greater than the kinetic frictional force for any
two surfaces of contact. However, if one of the bodies is moving with a very low velocity over
the surface of another, Fk becomes approximately equal to Fs, i.e., µs ≈ µk.
• When slipping at the surface of contact is about to occur, the maximum static frictional force is
proportional to the normal force, such that Fs = µsN.
• When slipping at the surface of contact is occurring, the kinetic frictional force is proportional
to the normal force, such that Fk = µkN.
Problems Involving Dry Friction

 If a problem involves only a motion of translation with no possible rotation, we can
usually treat the body under consideration as a particle.
 If the problem involves a possible rotation, we must treat the body as a rigid body.
 If the structure considered is made of several parts, we must apply the principle of action
and reaction.
Most problems involving friction fall into one of the following three groups:
1. You know all the applied forces and the coefficients of friction, and you must
determine whether equilibrium is maintained. In this situation, the friction force is
unknown and cannot be assumed to be equal to μsN. (fig. a)
 Write the equations of equilibrium to determine N and F.
 Calculate the maximum allowable friction force, Fm = μsN. If F ≤ Fm, equilibrium is

maintained. If F ≥ Fm, motion occurs, and the magnitude of the friction force is Fk = μkN.
2. You know all the applied forces, and you must find the smallest allowable value of μs
for which equilibrium is maintained. Assume that motion is impending, and determine
the corresponding value of μs. (fig. b)
 Write the equations of equilibrium to determine N and F.
 Since motion is impending, F = Fm. Substitute the values found for N and F into the
equation Fm = μsN and solve for μs.
3. The motion of the body is impending and μs is known; you must find some unknown
quantity, such as a distance, an angle, the magnitude of a force, or the direction of a
force. (fig. c)
 Assume a possible motion of the body and, on the free-body diagram, draw the friction
force in a direction opposite to that of the assumed motion.
 Since motion is impending, F = Fm = μsN. Substituting the known value for μs, you can
express F in terms of N on the free-body diagram, thus eliminating one unknown.
 Write and solve the equilibrium equations for the unknown you seek.
Sample Problem 1. A uniform crate with a mass of 20 kg is resting on a horizontal surface. If a

force P = 80 N is applied to the crate, determine if it remains in equilibrium. The coefficient of
static friction is µs = 0.3.
Solution. Considering the FBD of the crate, the resultant

normal force NC must act a distance x from the crate’s
center line in order to counteract the tipping effect caused
by P. There are three unknowns, F, NC, and x, which can
be determined strictly from the three equations of
equilibrium.
Equations of Equilibrium.
∑Fx = 0; 80 cos 30° N - F = 0

∑Fy = 0; -80 sin 30° N + NC - 196.2 N = 0
∑MO = 0; 80 sin 30° N(0.4 m) - 80 cos 30° N(0.2 m) + NC(x) = 0
Solving, F = 69.3 N
NC = 236.2 N
x = -0.00908 m = -9.08 mm
Since x is negative it indicates the resultant normal force acts (slightly) to the left of the crate’s
center line. No tipping will occur since x 6 0.4 m. Also, the maximum frictional force which can
be developed at the surface of contact is Fmax = µsNC = 0.3(236.2 N) = 70.9 N. Since F = 69.3 N
6 70.9 N, the crate will not slip, although it is very close to doing so.

Query for learning: can a person walk on a zero-friction floor [assuming that it is possible to
have such a floor]?
Express your answer using mechanics of forces with matching FBD.
Sample Problem 2. It is observed that when the bed of the dump truck is raised to an angle of θ
= 25° the vending machines on it will begin to slide off the bed. Determine the static coefficient
of friction between the vending machine and the surface of the truckbed.
Solution. The FBD of the vending machine is shown including

the given dimensions. We will assume its weight to be W. The
dimension x is used to locate the position of the resultant normal
force N. There are four unknowns, N, F, µs, and x.
Equations of Equilibrium.
∑Fx = 0; W sin 25° - F = 0 (1)
∑Fy = 0; N - W cos 25° = 0 (2)
∑MO = 0; -W sin 25°(2.5) + W cos 25°(x) = 0 (3)
Since slipping impends at u = 25°, using Eqs. 1 and 2, we have
Fs = µsN; W sin 25° = µs(W cos 25°)
µs = tan 25° = 0.466 Ans
The angle of θ = 25° is referred to as the angle of repose, and by comparison, it is equal to the
angle of static friction, θ = φs. Notice from the calculation that u is independent of the weight of
the vending machine, and so knowing u provides a convenient method for determining the
coefficient of static friction.
Note: From Eq. 3, we find x = 1.17 ft. Since 1.17 ft < 1.5 ft (location of center of gravity), indeed
the vending machine will slip before it can tip.
Sample Problem 3. A uniform 10-kg ladder rests against

a smooth wall at point B, and the end A rests on the
rough horizontal plane for which the coefficient of static
friction is µs = 0.30. Determine the angle of inclination θ
of the ladder and the normal reaction at B if the ladder is
on the verge of slipping.
Solution. As shown on the FBD, the frictional force FA

must act to the right since impending motion at A is to
the left.
Equations of Equilibrium and Friction. Since the ladder is
on the verge of slipping, then FA = µsNA = 0.3NA . By
inspection, NA can be obtained directly.
∑Fy = 0; NA - 10(9.81) N = 0 NA = 98.1 N
Using this result, FA = 0.3(98.1 N) = 29.43 N. Now NB
can be found.
∑Fx = 0; 29.43 N - NB = 0
NB = 29.43 N = 29.4 N Ans.
Finally, the angle θ can be determined by summing moments about point A.

∑MA = 0; (29.43 N)(4 m) sin θ - [10(9.81) N](2 m) cos θ = 0
sin θ / cos θ = tan θ = 1.6667
θ = 59.04° = 59.0° Ans.
Exercise Problems:
1) The 5-kg cylinder is suspended from two equal

length cords. The end of each cord is attached to a ring
of negligible mass that passes along a horizontal shaft.
If the rings can be separated by the greatest distance d
= 400 mm and still support the cylinder, determine the
coefficient of static friction between each ring and the
shaft. (Ans. µ = 0.354)
2) The 5-kg cylinder is suspended from two equal
length cords. The end of each cord is attached to a ring
of negligible mass that passes along a horizontal shaft.
If the coefficient of static friction between each ring
and the shaft is µs = 0.5, determine the greatest distance
d by which the rings can be separated and still support
the cylinder. (Ans. d = 537 mm)
3) The 80-lb boy stands on the beam and pulls

on the cord with a force large enough to just
cause him to slip. If (µs)D = 0.4 between his
shoes and the beam, determine the reactions at
A and B. The beam is uniform and has a weight
of 100 lb. Neglect the size of the pulleys and the
thickness of the beam.
(Ans. Ay = 474#, Bx = 36.0#, By = 232#)
4) The 80-lb boy stands on the beam and pulls
with a force of 40 lb. If (µs)D = 0.4, determine
the frictional force between his shoes and the
beam and the reactions at A and B. The beam is uniform and has a weight of 100 lb. Neglect the
size of the pulleys and the thickness of the beam. (Ans. FD = 36.9#, Ay = 468#, Bx = 34.6#,
By = 228#)
5) If each box weighs 150 lb, determine the least

horizontal force P that the man must exert on the top
box in order to cause motion. The coefficient of static
friction between the boxes is µs = 0.5, and the
coefficient of static friction between the box and the
floor is µ’s = 0.2. (Ans. P = 60#)
6) If each box weighs 150 lb, determine the least

horizontal force P that the man must exert on the top
box in order to cause motion. The coefficient of static
friction between the boxes is µs = 0.65, and the
coefficient of static friction between the box and the
floor is µ’s = 0.35. (Ans. P = 90#)
Wedges
A wedge is a simple machine that is often used to transf orm an applied force into much larger
forces, directed at approximately right angles to the applied force. Wedges also can be used to
slightly move or adjust heavy loads.
Consider, for example, the wedge shown in Fig. a, which is used to lift the block by applying a
force to the wedge. Free-body diagrams of the block and wedge are shown in Fig. b. Here we
have excluded the weight of the wedge since it is usually small compared to the weight W of the
block. Also, note that the frictional forces F1 and F2 must oppose the motion of the wedge.
Likewise, the frictional force F3 of the wall on the block must act downward so as to oppose the
block’s upward motion.
The locations of the resultant normal forces are not important in the force analysis since neither
the block nor wedge will “tip.” Hence the moment equilibrium equations will not be considered.
There are seven unknowns, consisting of the applied force P, needed to cause motion of the
wedge, and six normal and frictional forces. The seven available equations consist of four force
equilibrium equations, ∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0 applied to the wedge and block, and three frictional
equations, F = µN, applied at each surface of contact.
If the block is to be lowered, then the frictional forces will all act in a sense opposite to that
shown in Fig. b. Provided the coefficient of friction is very small or the wedge angle u is large,
then the applied force P must act to the right to hold the block. Otherwise, P may have a reverse
sense of direction in order to pull on the wedge to remove it. If P is not applied and friction
forces
Sample Problem. The uniform stone has a mass of 500 kg and is held in the horizontal position
using a wedge at B. If the coefficient of static friction is µs = 0.3 at the surfaces of contact,
determine the minimum force P needed to remove the wedge. Assume that the stone does not
slip at A.
Solution. The minimum force P requires F = µsN at the surfaces of contact with the wedge. The
free-body diagrams of the stone and wedge are shown in Fig. 8–13 b. On the wedge the friction
force opposes the impending motion, and on the stone at A, FA < µsNA, since slipping does not
occur there. There are five unknowns. Three equilibrium equations for the stone and two for the
wedge are available for solution. From the free-body diagram of the stone,
∑MA = 0; -4905 N(0.5 m) + (NB cos 7° N)(1 m) + (0.3NB sin 7° N)(1 m) = 0

NB = 2383.1 N
Using this result for the wedge, we have

∑Fy = 0; NC - 2383.1 cos 7° N - 0.3(2383.1 sin 7° N) = 0
NC = 2452.5 N
∑Fx = 0; 2383.1 sin 7° N - 0.3(2383.1 cos 7° N) + P - 0.3(2452.5 N) = 0

P = 1154.9 N = 1.15 kN Ans.
NOTE: Since P is positive, indeed the wedge must be pulled out. If P were zero, the wedge
would remain in place (self-locking) and the frictional forces developed at B and C would satisfy
FB < µsNB and FC < µsNC.
Exercise Problems:
1) If the beam AD is loaded as shown,

determine the horizontal force P which
must be applied to the wedge in order to
remove it from under the beam. The
coefficients of static friction at the
wedge’s top and bottom surfaces are
µCA = 0.25 and µCB = 0.35, respectively.
If P = 0, is the wedge self-locking? Neglect the weight and size of the wedge and the thickness of
the beam. (Ans. P = 5.53 kN; it is self-locking when P = 0)
2) Determine the largest angle θ that will cause the wedge to be self-locking regardless of the
magnitude of horizontal force P applied to the
blocks. The coefficient of static friction
between the wedge and the blocks is µs = 0.3.
Neglect the weight of the wedge. (Ans. θ =
33.4°)
3) If the spring is compressed 60 mm and the coefficient

of static friction between the tapered stub S and the slider
A is µSA = 0.5, determine the horizontal force P needed to
move the slider forward. The stub is free to move without
friction within the fixed collar C. The coefficient of static
friction between A and surface B is µAB = 0.4. Neglect
the weights of the slider and stub. (P = 34.5N)
4) The coefficient of static friction between wedges B and C

is µs = 0.6 and between the surfaces of contact B and A and
C and D, µ’s = 0.4. If the spring is compressed 200 mm when
in the position shown, determine the smallest force P needed
to move wedge C to the left. Neglect the weight of the
wedges. (Ans. P = 304N)
5) The coefficient of static friction between the wedges B

and C is µs = 0.6 and between the surfaces of contact B and
A and C and D, µ’s = 0.4. If P = 50 N, determin e the smallest allowable compression of the
spring without causing wedge C to move to the left. Neglect the weight of the wedges. (Ans. x =
32.9mm)
Square-threaded Screws
A square-threaded screw is commonly used to transmit power or motion from one part of the
machine to another, especially when large forces are applied along its axis. In this section, we
will analyze the forces acting on square-threaded screws. The analysis of other types of screws,
such as the V-thread, is based on these same
principles.
A square-threaded screw can be considered a

cylinder having an inclined square ridge or thread
wrapped around it. If the thread is unwound by one
revolution, the slope or the lead angle θ is
determined from θ = tan-1(l/2πr). Here l and 2πr are
the vertical and horizontal distances between A and
B, where r is the mean radius of the thread. The distance l is called the lead of the screw and it is
equivalent to the distance the screw advances when it turns one revolution.
Upward Impending Motion. Consider a square-threaded screw

[as in the jack shown on the left] that is subjected to upward
impending motion caused by the applied torsional moment *M. A
free body diagram of the entire unraveled thread h in contact with
the jack can be represented as a block as shown in Fig. A. The
force W is the vertical force acting on the thread or the axial force
applied to the shaft of the screw jack, and M / r is the resultant
horizontal force produced by the couple moment M about the axis
of the shaft. The reaction R of the groove on the thread has both
frictional and normal components, where F = µs N. The angle of
static friction is φs = tan-1(F/N) = tan-1µs.
Applying the force equations of equilibrium along the horizontal

and vertical axes, we have
∑Fx = 0; M/r - R sin (θ + φs) = 0
∑Fy = 0; R cos (θ + φs) - W = 0
Eliminating R from these equations, we obtain
M = rW tan (θ + φs) Figure A

Self-Locking Screw. A screw is said to be self-locking if it

Figure B remains in place under any axial load W when the moment M is
removed. For this to occur, the direction of the frictional force
must be reversed so that R acts on the other side of N. Here the
angle of static friction φs becomes greater than or equal to θ
(Fig. D). If φs = θ (Fig. B), then R will act vertically to balance
W, and the screw will be on the verge of winding downward.
Downward Impending Motion, (θ > φs). If the screw is not

self-locking, it is necessary to apply a moment M’ to prevent
the screw from winding downward. Here, a horizontal force
M’/r is required to push against the thread to prevent it from
sliding down the plane, Fig. C. Using the same procedure as
before, the magnitude of the moment M’ required to prevent
this unwinding is Figure C
M’ = rW tan (θ - φs)
Downward Impending Motion, (θ < φs) . If a screw is self-

locking, a couple moment M” must be applied to the screw in
Figure D
the opposite direction to wind the screw downward (θ < φs).
This causes a reverse horizontal force M”/r that pushes the
thread down as indicated in Fig. D. In this case, we obtain
M” = rW tan (φs - θ) (8–5)
If motion of the screw occurs, simply replace φs with φk in the

above equations.
Sample Problem. The turnbuckle shown below has a square thread with a mean radius of 5 mm
and a lead of 2 mm. If µs = 0.25, between the screw and the turnbuckle, determine the moment M
that must be applied to draw the end screws closer together.
Solution. Since friction at two screws must be overcome, this requires
M = 2[rW tan(θ + φs)] (1)
Here W = 2000 N, φs = tan-1µs = tan-1(0.25) = 14.04°, r = 5 mm, and θ = tan-1(l/2πr) = tan-1(2

mm/[2π(5 mm)]) = 3.64°. Substituting these values into Eq. 1 and solving gives
M = 2[(2000 N)(5 mm) tan(14.04° + 3.64°)]

= 6374.7 N · mm = 6.37 N · m Ans.
NOTE: When the moment is removed, the turnbuckle will be self-locking; i.e., it will not
unscrew since φs > θ.
Exercise Problems:
1) If couple forces of F= 10 lb are applied perpendicular to the lever

of the clamp at A and B, determine the clamping force on the boards.
The single square-threaded screw of the clamp has a mean diameter of
1 in. and a lead of 0.25 in. The coefficient of static friction is µs = 0.3.
(Ans. P = 617#)
2) The column is used to support the upper floor. [a] If a force F = 80 N is

applied perpendicular to the handle to tighten the screw, determine the
compressive force in the column. The square-threaded screw on the jack
has a coefficient of static friction of µs = 0.4, mean diameter of 25 mm,
and a lead of 3 mm. [b] If the force F is removed from the handle of the
jack, determine if the screw is self-locking.
(Ans. W = 7.19kN; since φs > θP the screw is self-locking)
3) If the clamping force at G is 900 N, determine the

horizontal force F that must be applied perpendicular to
the handle of the lever at E. The mean diameter and lead
of both single square-threaded screws at C and D are 25
mm and 5 mm, respectively. The coefficient of static
friction is µs = 0.3. (Ans. F = 66.7N)
4) The shaft has a square-threaded screw with a lead of 8 mm and a

mean radius of 15 mm. If it is in contact with a plate gear having a
mean radius of 30 mm, determine the resisting torque M on the plate
gear which can be overcome if a torque of 7 N - m is applied to the
shaft. The coefficient of static friction at the screw is µB = 0.2.
Neglect friction of the bearings located at A and B.
(Ans. M = 48.3 N – m)
5) If a horizontal force of P = 100 N

is applied perpendicular to the
handle of the lever at A, determine
the compressive force F exerted on
the material. Each single square-
threaded screw has a mean diameter
of 25 mm and a lead of 7.5 mm. The
coefficient of static friction at all
contacting surfaces of the wedges is µs = 0.2, and the coefficient of static friction at the screw is
µ’s = 0.15.
(Ans. T = 4.02 kN, F = 11.06 kN)
Belt Friction
Consider the flat belt shown, which passes over a fixed curved
surface. The total angle of belt to surface contact in radians is
β, and the coefficient of friction between the two surfaces is µ.
The point of interest is tension T2 in the belt, which is needed
to pull the belt counterclockwise over the surface, and thereby
overcome both the frictional forces at the surface of contact
and the tension T1 in the other end of the belt. Obviously, T 2 >
T1.
This is given by the formula:
or T2 = T1eµβ
where:
T2, T1 = belt tensions; T1 opposes the direction of motion (or impending motion) of
the belt measured relative to the surface, while T 2 acts in the direction of the relative
belt motion (or impending motion); because of friction, T 2 > T1
µ = coefficient of static or kinetic friction between the belt and the surface of contact
β = angle of belt to surface contact, measured in radians
e = 2.718…, base of the natural logarithm
Note that T2 is independent of the radius of the drum, and instead it is a function of
the angle of belt to surface contact, β. As a result, this equation is valid for flat belts
passing over any curved contacting surface.
Sample Problem. The maximum tension that can

be developed in the cord shown is 500 N. If the
pulley at A is free to rotate and the coefficient of
static friction at the fixed drums B and C is µs =
0.25, determine the largest mass of the cylinder
that can be lifted by the cord.
Solution.
Lifting the cylinder, which has a weight W = mg, causes the
cord to move counterclockwise over the drums at B and C;
hence, the maximum tension T2 in the cord occurs at D. Thus, F
= T2 = 500 N. A section of the cord passing over the drum at B
as shown. Since 180° = π rad the angle of contact between the
drum and the cord is β = (135°/180°)π = 3π/4 rad. We have
T2 = T1eµsβ; 500 N = T1e0.25[(3>4)π]
Hence,
T1 = 500 N / e0.25[(3>4)π] = 500 N / 1.80 = 277.4 N
Since the pulley at A is free to rotate, equilibrium requires that the tension in the cord remains
the same on both sides of the pulley. The section of the cord
passing over the drum at C is shown. The weight W < 277.4 N.
Why? We obtain
T2 = T1eµsβ; 277.4 N = We0.25[(3>4)π]
W = 153.9 N
so that
m = W/g = 153.9 N / 9.81 m/s2 = 15.7 kg Ans.
Exercise Problems:
1) The uniform concrete pipe has a weight of

800 lb and is unloaded slowly from the truck
bed using the rope and skids shown. If the
coefficient of kinetic friction between the rope
and pipe is µk = 0.3, determine the force the
worker must exert on the rope to lower the pipe
at constant speed. There is a pulley at B, and
the pipe does not slip on the skids. The lower
portion of the rope is parallel to the skids.
(Ans. T1 = 73.3#)
2) The truck, which has a mass of 3.4

Mg, is to be lowered down the slope by a
rope that is wrapped around a tree. If the
wheels are free to roll and the man at A
can resist a pull of 300 N, determine the
minimum number of turns the rope should
be wrapped around the tree to lower the
truck at a constant speed. The coefficient
of kinetic friction between the tree and
rope is µk = 0.3.
(Ans. 695°, approximately 2 turns)
3) A “hawser” is wrapped around a fixed

“capstan” to secure a ship for docking. If the
tension in the rope, caused by the ship, is 1500
lb, determine the least number of complete
turns the rope must be wrapped around the
capstan in order to prevent slipping of the rope.
The greatest horizontal force that a longshoreman can exert on the rope is 50 lb. The coefficient
of static friction is µs = 0.3. (Ans. use n = 2 turns)
4) A force of P = 25 N is just sufficient to prevent the 20-kg cylinder

from descending. Determine the required force P to begin lifting the
cylinder. The rope passes over a rough peg with two and half turns.
(Ans. P = 1.54 kN)
5) The simple band brake is

constructed so that the ends
of the friction strap are
connected to the pin at A and the lever arm at B. If the
wheel is subjected to a torque of M = 80 lb - ft,
determine the smallest force P applied to the lever that
is required to hold the wheel stationary. The coefficient
of static friction between the strap and wheel is µs = 0.5.
(Ans. P = 17.1#)
Rolling Resistance
Theoretically, when a rigid cylinder rolls at constant velocity along a rigid
surface, the normal force exerted by the surface on the cylinder acts
perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact. However, because no
materials are perfectly rigid, the reaction of the surface on the cylinder
consists of a distribution of normal pressure. For example, consider the
cylinder to be made of a very hard material, and the surface on which it rolls
to be relatively soft. Due to its weight, the cylinder compresses the surface
underneath it. As the cylinder rolls, the surface material in front of the
cylinder retards the motion since it is being deformed , whereas the material in the
rear is restored from the deformed state and therefore tends to push the cylinder
forward. The normal pressures acting on the cylinder in this manner are represented
in the figure by their resultant forces Nd and Nr. The magnitude of the force of
deformation, Nd, and its horizontal component is always greater than that of
restoration, Nr, and consequently a horizontal driving force P must be applied to
the cylinder to maintain the motion.
Rolling resistance is caused primarily by this effect, although it is also, to a
lesser degree, the result of surface adhesion and relative microsliding between
the surfaces of contact. Because the actual force P needed to overcome these
effects is difficult to determine, a simplified method will be developed here to
explain one way engineers have analyzed this phenomenon. To do this, we will
consider the resultant of the entire normal pressure, N = Nd + Nr, acting on the
Figure G
cylinder. As shown in Fig. G, this force acts at an angle θ with the vertical. To
keep the cylinder in equilibrium, i.e., rolling at a constant rate, it is necessary that N be
concurrent with the driving force P and the weight W. Summing moments about point A gives
Wa = P(r cos θ). Since the deformations are generally very small in relation to the cylinder’s
radius, cos θ ≈ 1; hence,
Wa ≈ Pr or P ≈ Wa / r
The distance a is termed the coefficient of rolling resistance, which has the dimension of length.
For instance, a ≈ 0.5 mm for a wheel rolling on a rail, both of which are made of mild steel. For
hardened steel ball bearings on steel, a ≈ 0.1 mm. Because this factor is difficult to measure, little
reliance is placed on the data for determining a . The analysis presented here does, however,
indicate why a heavy load (W) offers greater resistance to motion (P) than a light load under the
same conditions. Furthermore, since Wa/r is generally very small compared to µ kW, the force
needed to roll a cylinder over the surface will be much less than that needed to slide it across the
surface. It is for this reason that a roller or ball bearings are often used to minimize the frictional
resistance between moving parts.
Sample Problem. A 10-kg steel wheel shown has a radius of 100 mm

and rests on an inclined plane made of soft wood. If θ is increased so
that the wheel begins to roll down the incline with constant velocity
when θ = 1.2°, determine the
coefficient of rolling resistance.
Solution.
As shown on the free-body diagram, when the wheel
has impending motion, the normal reaction N acts at
point A defined by the dimension a. Resolving the
weight into components parallel and perpendicular to
the incline, and summing moments about point A ,
yields
∑MA = 0; -(98.1 cos 1.2° N)(a)
+ (98.1 sin 1.2° N)(100 cos 1.2° mm) = 0
Solving, we obtain a = 2.09 mm Ans.
Exercise Problems:
1) The shaft is supported by a thrust bearing

A and a journal bearing B. Determine the
torque M required to rotate the shaft at
constant angular velocity. The coefficient of
kinetic friction at the thrust bearing is µk =
0.2. (Ans. M = 46.7 N-m)
1) A 5-kg skateboard rolls down the 5° slope at constant

speed. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the
12.5 mm diameter axles and the wheels is µk = 0.3,
determine the radius of the wheels. Neglect rolling
resistance of the wheels on the surface. The center of
mass for the skateboard is at G. (Ans. r = 20.6mm)
2) The tractor has a weight of 16 000 lb and the

coefficient of rolling resistance is a = 2 in. Determine
the force P needed to overcome rolling resistance at all
four wheels and push it forward. (Ans. P =1333#)
3) The floor-polishing machine rotates at a constant angular

velocity. If it has a weight of 80 lb. determine the couple forces
F the operator must apply to the handles to hold the machine
stationary. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the floor
and brush is µk = 0.3. Assume the brush exerts a uniform
pressure on the floor. (Ans. F= 10.7#)
4) The hand cart has wheels with a diameter of 80 mm.

If a crate having a mass of 500 kg is placed on the cart
so that each wheel carries an equal load, determine the
horizontal force P that must be applied to the handle to
overcome the rolling resistance. The coefficient of
rolling resistance is 2 mm. Neglect the mass of the cart.
(Ans. P = 245N)
5) The cart together with the load weighs 150 lb and

has a center of gravity at G. If the wheels fit loosely
on the 1.5-in. diameter axles, determine the
horizontal force P required to pull the cart with
constant velocity. The coefficient of kinetic friction
between the axles and the wheels is µk = 0.2. Neglect
rolling resistance of the wheels on the ground. (Ans.
P = 2.45#)
Module 5: Centroids
References:
Education.
Kraige, L.G., & Meriam, J.L. (2012). Engineering Mechanics Statics 7th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Introduction:
In future topics on Engineering Mechanics and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies, it is very

significant to know how to locate the centroid of an area. Particularly when there are distributed
loads on a structure or its member, it is a must that its centroid can be located for proper analysis.
Also, when loads are applied over an area, its resultant must coincides with the centroid of the
cross section to have a uniform stress distribution.

ILO 3: Examine the interplay of the attributes of forces in their various applications
Topic Outcomes:
 Concept of the centroid
 Determining the location of the centroid of a body with definite shape.
 Theorems of Pappus and its application in the calculation of areas and volumes.
Centroid refers to the geometrical center of a plane figure: a curve, area or volume. It is the
average position of all the points of an object.
Looking at the figures shown, a circle and a rectangle, their respective centroids are denoted by
the dots at the intersection of their centroidal axes.
Centroidal Axes are the lines passing through the centroid of the figure. The vertical centroidal
axis is represented by line Y and the horizontal centroidal axis is donoted as line X.
When calculating for the location of the centroid, there are perpendicular lines selected and used
as reference lines. These are called the Reference Axes.
Location of Centroid by Integration
Since the centroid is the average position of the points in a figure, integration is the process used
to sum up the infinite number of points a figure has. Integration is also equivalent to summing up
finite elements. If an area of an element had been expressed as the differential dA, which is a
small portion of the whole area A, the equations to determine the centroid of an area would be:
, for centroid with respect to x – axis and

, for centroid with respect to y – axis
Moreover, if the centroid of a line is to be determined, the equations to be used are:

Illustrative Problems
Example 1: Locate the centroid of a circular arc as shown in the figure.
Solution:
Choosing the axis of symmetry as the x-axis makes 0. A differential element of arc has the
length expressed in polar coordinates, and the x-coordinate of the element is r cos .
Applying the equation for centroid of line with respect to x-axis and substituting :
For a semicircular arc , which gives . By symmetry we see immediately that this
result also applies to the quarter-circular arc when the measurement is made as shown.
Example 2: Determine the distance from the base of a triangle of altitude h to the centroid of
its area.
Solution:
The x-axis is taken to coincide with the base. A differential strip of area is chosen. By
similar triangles . Applying the equation for centroid of area with respect to y-axis:
This same result holds with respect to either of the other two sides of the triangle considered a
new base with corresponding new altitude. Thus, the centroid lies at the intersection of the
medians, since the distance of this point from any side is one-third the altitude of the triangle
with that side considered the base.
Location of Centroid of Composite Figures
In engineering, numerous figures are composed of different geometric figures combined to create
a composite section. There are structural elements with predetermined location of centroids
which are available on different references. In some cases, these figures can be divided into finite
shapes, in which respective centroid is known. The moment of the total area is equal to the
summation of the moments of each part along a reference axis. This is very similar to that of
Varignon’s Theorem, only this time, we are dealing with the component regular shapes instead
of the component forces. The centroid of composite figure is determined using the following
equations:

Additionally, if the centroid of a line is to be determined, the equations to be used are:

The table next shows the centroids for common geometric shapes.
Source: http://sknlazoce.blogspot.com/2019/04/90-centroids-and-center-of-gravity.html
Example 3: Locate the centroid of the shaded area.
Solution:
The composite area is divided into the four elementary shapes shown in the figure. The centroid
locations of all these shapes may be obtained from table of centroids for common geometric
shapes. Note that the areas of the “holes” (parts 3 and 4) are taken as negative in the following
table:
Part a x y ax ay
(in2) (in) (in) (in3) (in3)
1 120 6 5 720 600
2 30 14 10/3 420 100
3 -14.14 6 1.273 -84.8 -18
4 -8 12 4 -96 -32
Total 127.9 959 650
(Answer)
(Answer)
Theorems of Pappus
Pappus of Alexandria, a Greek geometrician who lived in the 3rd century A.D. discovered two
theorems for determining the surface area or volume generated by revolving a plane curve or a
plane area about an imaginary axis in the plane. The name of Guldinus (Paul Guldin, 1577-1643)
was also associated in these theorems after the Swiss mathematician claimed its authorship.
The First Theorem of Pappus provides a way for computing the surface area of a surface of
revolution: it says that the area of a surface of revolution is equal to the product of the length of
the revolving curve and the distance travelled by its centroid in this revolution.
Consider the figure shown where in a line segment of length L in the plane x-y is rotated about
the x-axis. It generates a surface area with a ring element formed by multiplying dL to the
distance travelled by its centroid rotated about the reference axis.
Therefore, the total area can be expressed as:
Since , the area can be calculated as:
Likewise, the Second Theorem of Pappus is for computing the volume of a body of revolution:
this says that the volume of a body of revolution is equal to the area of the revolving plane
multiplied by the distance travelled by its centroid in this revolution.
As presented in the next figure, the area A in the plane x-y is rotated about the x-axis. It generates
a volume with a ring element formed by multiplying its cross section dA to the distance travelled
by its centroid rotated about the reference axis.
Therefore, the total volume can be expressed as:
Since , the volume can be calculated as:
Example 4: Compute the surface area of the cone generated by revolving the line shown about
the y-axis.
Solution:
Two cones can be generated by revolving the lines AB and AD about the y-axis.
The x-coordinate of the centroid for each segment of the line is given by ;
Hence 1 = 1 in and 2 = 1.5 in
Using First Theorem of Pappus:
4-in. Segment:
1 =2π 1L1
1 = (2π) (1) (4)
2
1 = 25.1 in
6-in. Segment:
2 =2π 2L2
2 = (2π) (1.5) (6)
2
2 = 56.5 in
= 1+ 2
= 25.1 in2 + 56.5 in2
= 81.6 in2 (Answer)
Example 5: Calculate the volume V of the solid generated by revolving the 60-mm right
triangular area through 180° about the z-axis
Solution:
With the angle of revolution .
Using Second Theorem of Pappus:
mm3 (Answer)
Exercises:
Problem No. 1: Determine the x and y-coordinate of the centroid of the shaded area.
Problem No. 3: Calculate the coordinates of the centroid of the segment of the circular area.
Problem No. 6: The circular arc is rotated through 360° about the y-axis. Determine the outer
surface area S of the resulting body, which is a portion of a spherical shell
Problem No. 7: Using Theorems of Pappus, determine the surface area A and volume V of the
body formed by revolving the rectangular area through 360° about the z-axis.
Problem No. 8: Determine the volume V and total surface area A of the solid generated by
revolving the area shown through 180° about the z-axis.
Problem No. 9: Calculate the volume V of the large neoprene washer in the form of the
complete ring of section shown. Also compute the overall surface area A.
Problem No. 10: Calculate the mass m of concrete required to construct the arched dam shown.
Concrete has a density of 2.40 Mg/m3.
Exercises Key:
1. , 6.
2. , 7. ,
3. 8. ,
4. , 9. ,
5. , 10.
Module 6: Moment of Inertia

References:
Education.
Khurmi, R.S. (n.d.). A Textbook of Engineering Mechanics 20th Multicolor Edition. S. Chand & Company Ltd.
Introduction:
The concept of moment of inertia provides a convenient way of computing the capacity of a
body to resist bending. It has no equivalent figure or diagram and so is defined only by its
formula. The general formula for (rectangular) moment of inertia is: Ix = ʃ y2 dA. [this is read as
moment of inertia about, or with respect to, the x axis]. The square of the y-distance in the
general formula is the reason why the moment of inertia is also known as the second moment of
area. The moment of inertia is a function of the geometry of the area and is usually used in the
applications of mechanics. Consequently, it is convenient to develop its properties in some detail
and to have these properties available for ready use when the need arises.

Topic Outcomes:
 Concept of the moment of inertia.
 Concept of transfer formula, radius of gyration and polar moment of inertia.
 Computation of the moment of inertia of regular and composite shapes in rectangular and
polar axes
Moment of Inertia, as defined in the introduction, is the second moment of area, since the first
moment y dA is multiplied by the moment arm y to obtain the second moment for the element
dA.
Consider the area A in the x-y plane in the figure shown. The moments of inertia of the element
dA about the x- and y-axes are, by definition, dIx = y2 dA and dIx = y2 dA respectively. Hence, the
Rectangular Moments of Inertia of A about the respective axes are:
Ix = ʃ y2 dA, for moment of inertia about the x – axis and

Iy = ʃ x2 dA, for moment of inertia about the y – axis
The moment of inertia of dA about the pole O is, by similar definition, dJo = r2 dA. Therefore,
the Polar Moment of Inertia is:
Jo = ʃ r2 dA, for moment of inertia about O
Since, by Pythagorean Theorem, r2 = x2 + y2, it is evident that the Polar Moment of Inertia can be
express as Jo = Ix + Iy.
The Radius of Gyration (with respect to the x axis) of a shape with known area refers to the
distance from x axis where an imaginary thin strip (shown in the figure below) with the same
area as the original shape needs to be placed so that its moment of inertia about x is the same as
that of the original shape with respect to this same axis. By relationship,
kx2 =
where Ix is the rectangular moment of inertia with respect with the x-axis, A represents the total
area and kx is the radius of gyration of the area with respect to x-axis.
Transfer Formula for Moment of Inertia
Computing the centroidal moment of inertia of composite or irregular figures requires the
transfer of the reference axes of the component shapes or figures from their respective centroidal
axes to the centroidal axis of the composite shape. This transfer formula is:
IN = IO + Ad2
where IN is the transferred moment of inertia, IO refers to the centroidal moment of inertia about
the component’s centroidal axis, A refers to the area of the component shape and d refers to the
distance from the centroid of the shape to the axis or centroid of the composite shape where it is
to be transferred.
The table next shows the properties for geometric shapes.
Example 1: Determine the moments of inertia of the rectangular area shown about the centroidal
x0- and y0-axes, the centroidal polar axis through C.
Solution:
For the moment of inertia about the x0- axis, a horizontal strip of area bdy can be used so that the
y-coordinate is constant throughout b:
Following the same process, but this time about other axis, the moment of inertia about the y0-
axis is:
For the centroidal polar moment of inertia about C.
(Answer)
Example 2: Calculate the moments of inertia of the area of a circle about a diametral axis and
about the polar axis through the center. Specify the radii of gyration.
Solution:
A differential element of area in the form of a circular ring may be used for the calculation of the
moment of inertia about the polar axis through O since all elements of the ring are equidistant
from O. The elemental area is and thus,
For polar radius of gyration:
Since ,
For radius of gyration about the diametral axis:
Example 3: Determine the moments of inertia about the x- and y-axes for the shaded area.
Solution:
The solution for the problem is very similar to that of a composite section, only in this case,
some parts have to be deducted from a larger regular shape. There are three subareas presented in
the figure – a rectangle, a quarter circle and a triangle. The latter two subareas are to be
subtracted from the first as shown next.
The calculation is presented in the table shown:
Parts
Properties Total
1 2 3
A (mm2)
dx (mm) -
dy (mm) -
Adx2 (mm3)
Ady2 (mm3)
Ixo (mm4) -(
Iyo (mm4) -(
Using the Transfer Formula, the Moments of Inertia can be determined:
(Answer)
(Answer)
Exercises:
Problem No. 1: Calculate the moment of inertia of the shaded area about the y-axis.
Problem No. 2: Use the differential element shown to determine the moments of inertia of the
triangular area about the x- and y-axes. Also determine the polar moment of inertia about point
O.
Problem No. 3: Determine the polar radius of gyration of the area of the equilateral triangle
about the midpoint M of its base.
Problem No. 4: Determine the moment of inertia about the x-axis of the rectangular area without
and with the central rectangular hole.
Problem No. 5: The cross-sectional area of a wide-flange I-beam has the dimensions shown.
Obtain a close approximation to the handbook value of Ix = 657 in4 by treating the section as
being composed of three rectangles.
Problem No. 6: Calculate the polar radius of gyration of the shaded area about its centroid C.
Problem No. 7: Determine the moments of inertia of the section about horizontal and vertical
axes passing through the centroid of the section.
Problem No. 8: A built up section is made by needing too stable and two channel sections.
Determine moment of inertia of a built up section about the axis passing through centre of
gravity of the section.
Problem No. 9: Find the moment of inertia of the lamina with a circular hole of 30 mm diameter
about the axis AB as shown.
Problem No. 10: Determine the polar moment of inertia about point O of the shaded area shown.
Exercises Key:
1. 6.
2. , , ) 7.
3. 8.
4. 9.
5. 10.
Module 7: Analysis of Structures

References:
Education.
Introduction:
Application of the mechanics of forces in the field of structures. Transforming structures into
their equivalent member-forces lead to some set of concurrent forces and/or of coplanar/parallel
forces. Not unlike the Roman dictum divide et impera, analysing a truss with many members is
simplified by dividing it into portions that allow analysis using mechanics of forces. This leads to
the method of joints and the method of sections analyses of trusses. The graphical method, on the
other hand, use the diagrammatic properties of forces to determine the bar forces in structural
members by drawing line-representations of these forces.

ILO 1: Differentiate the attributes of forces and force derivatives.
ILO 2: Calculate the various effects and uses of forces
Topic Outcomes:
 Determination of the magnitudes and directions of forces in structural members by
method of joints.
method of sections.
graphical method.
Analysis of Structures is the process of determining how the loads applied are distributed
throughout the structure. The purpose is to determine the forces acting in the members and upon
the pins or hinges of the structure.
Internal Forces hold together the various parts of the structure. Consider the structure in
equilibrium shown in the next figure:
A crane is supporting a load W (a). It’s free-body diagram (b) and the free-body diagram of the
components of the crane (c) are also presented.
The force exerted at B by member BE on member AD is shown equal and opposite to the force
exerted at the same point by member AD on member BE. Similarly, the force exerted at E by BE
on CF is shown equal and opposite to the force exerted by CF on BE, and the components of the
force exerted at C by CF on AD are shown equal and opposite to the components of the force
exerted by AD on CF. These representations of forces agree with Newton’s third law.
Three Broad Categories of Engineering Structure
 Trusses, which are designed to support loads and are

usually stationary, fully constrained structures.
Trusses consist exclusively of straight members
connected at joints located at the ends of each
member. Members of a truss, therefore, are two-
force members, i.e., members acted upon by two
equal and opposite forces directed along the
member.
Truss Bridge
 Frames, which are also designed to support loads

and are also usually stationary, fully constrained
structures. However, like the crane in the previous
example, frames always contain at least one multi-
force member, i.e., a member acted upon by three or
more forces that, in general, are not directed along
the member.
Bicycle Frame
 Machines, which are designed to transmit and

modify forces and are structures containing moving
parts. Machines, like frames, always contain at least
one multi-force member.
Hydraulic Machine Arm
Analysis of Trusses
 The truss is one of the major types of engineering structures. It provides a practical and
economical solution to many engineering situations, especially in the design of bridges
and buildings.
 Truss members are connected at their extremities only; no member is continuous through
a joint.
 Most actual structures are made of several trusses joined together to form a space
framework. Each truss is designed to carry those loads that act in its plane and thus may
be treated as a two-dimensional structure.
 The members of a truss are slender and can support little lateral load; all loads, therefore,
must be applied at the various joints and not to the members themselves.
 When a concentrated load is to be applied between two joints or when the truss must
support a distributed load, as in the case of a bridge truss, a floor system must be
provided. The floor transmits the load to the joints through the use of stringers and floor
beams.
 The members are actually joined together by means of welded, bolted, or riveted
connections, it is customary to assume that the members are pinned together; therefore,
the forces acting at each end of a member reduce to a single force and no couple.
 This enables us to model the forces applied to a truss member as a single force at each
end of the member.
 We can then treat each member as a two-force member, and we can consider the entire
truss as a group of pins and two-force members.
 An individual member can be acted upon as shown in either of the two sketches. There
are forces that tend to pull the member apart, and that member is in TENSION (a).
However, there are forces that tend to push the member together, and that member is in
COMPRESSION (b).
Typical Trusses
Completely Constrained and Determinate Trusses
 Any simple truss that is simply supported is a completely constrained and determinate
truss.
 To determine whether any other truss is or is not completely constrained and

determinate, count the number m of its members, the number n of its joints, and the
number r of the reaction components at its supports. Compare the sum m + r representing
the number of unknowns and the product 2n represents the number of available
independent equilibrium equations.
a. If m + r < 2n, there are fewer unknowns than equations. Thus, some of the
equations cannot be satisfied, and the truss is only partially constrained.
b. If m + r > 2n, there are more unknowns than equations. Thus, some of the
unknowns cannot be determined, and the truss is indeterminate.
c. If m + r = 2n, there are as many unknowns as there are equations. This,

however, does not mean that all of the unknowns can be determined and
that all of the equations can be satisfied.
 To find out whether the truss is completely or improperly constrained, try to determine
the reactions at its supports and the forces in its members. If you can find all of them, the
truss is completely constrained and determinate.
The Method of Joints
This involves analyzing each joint of a structure to determine the bar forces in each of the
member meeting at that joint. Because forces in any joint will always be concurrent, the key in
this method is to begin with a joint with only two unknown bar forces. Then proceed with an
adjacent joint where there will only be two unknown members. This process is repeated until all
joints have been analyzed, meaning all member forces have been determined. [one at a time, with
patience]
To determine the forces in the members of a simple truss; that is, a truss that can be constructed
from a basic triangular truss by adding two new members to it at a time and connecting them at a
new joint, the following steps must be done:
Steps:
1. Draw a free-body diagram of the entire truss,
and use this diagram to determine the reactions
at the supports.
2. Locate a joint connecting only two members,

and draw the free-body diagram of its pin. Use
this free-body diagram to determine the
unknown force in each of the two members. If
only three forces are involved (the two
unknown forces and a known one), you will
probably find it more convenient to draw and
solve the corresponding force triangle. If more
than three forces are involved, you should write
and solve the equilibrium equations for the pin,
(a) FBD of the truss as a rigid ∑𝐹𝑥 =0 and ∑𝐹𝑦 =0, assuming that the
body; members are in tension. A positive answer
(b) FBD of the five members and means that the member is in tension, a negative
four pins that make up the truss. answer means that the member is in
compression. Once you have found the forces,
enter their values on a sketch of the truss with T
for tension and C for compression.
3. Locate a joint where the forces in only two of the connected members are still
unknown. Draw the free-body diagram of the pin and use it as indicated in Step 2 to
determine the two unknown forces.
4. Repeat this procedure until you have found the forces in all the members of the truss.
Since you previously used the three equilibrium equations associated with the free-
body diagram of the entire truss to determine the reactions at the supports you will
end up with three extra equations. These equations can be used to check your
computations.
5. Note that the choice of the first joint is not unique. Once you have determined the
reactions at the supports of the truss, you can choose either of two joints as a starting
point for your analysis.
6.
Free-body diagram and force polygons used in determining the

forces on the pins and in the members of the truss shown.
Joints under Special Loading Conditions
 The figure (a) shows a joint connecting four members lying along two intersecting
straight lines.
 The free-body diagram of the figure (b) shows that pin A is subjected to two pairs of
directly opposite forces.
 The corresponding force polygon, therefore, must be a parallelogram (c), and the forces
in opposite members must be equal.
 Consider the figure, in which a joint connects three members

and supports a load P. Two members lie along the same line,
and load P acts along the third member. The free-body diagram
of pin A and the corresponding force polygon are the same as in
figure (b) and c, with FAE replaced by load P. Thus, the forces
in the two opposite members must be equal, and the force in
the other member must equal P.
 The figure shows a particular case of special interest. Since, in

this case, no external load is applied to the joint, we have P = 0,
and the force in member AC is zero. Member AC is said to be a
zero-force member.
 In the case of the joint shown in the left (a), which

connects two members AB and AD lying along
the same line, the forces in the two members must
be equal for pin A to be in equilibrium.
 In the case of the joint shown in left also (b), pin
A cannot be in equilibrium unless the forces in
both members are zero. Members connected as
shown (b), therefore, must be zero-force members.
Example 1: Using the method of joints,

determine the force in each member of the truss
shown.
Example 2: Using the method of joints, determine the force in each member of the truss shown.
State whether each member is in tension or compression.
Method of Sections
This involves cutting the structure into sections, where the cutting plane must pass through the
members where the bar forces need to be computed, analyzing only one side of the cutting plane.
Diagrams in this method almost always result to coplanar force diagrams. This allows not only
the ∑F equations used in the method of joints but also the ∑M equations making the computation
of the bar forces usually shorter.
This method is more efficient when you need to find the force in only one member or the forces
in a very few members of a truss. The following are the steps in performing the method of
sections:
Steps:
1. Draw a free-body diagram of the entire truss, and use this diagram to determine the
reactions at the supports.
2. Pass a section through three members of the truss, one of which is the member whose
force you want to find. After you cut through these members, you will have two separate
portions of truss.
3. Select one of these two portions of truss and draw its free-body diagram. This diagram
should include the external forces applied to the selected portion as well as the forces
exerted on it by the intersected members that were removed.
(a) We can pass a section nn through the truss, (b) Free-body diagram of portion ABC of the truss.
dividing the three members BD, BE, and CE. We assume that members BD, BE, and CE are in
tension.
4. You can now write three equilibrium equations that can be solved for the forces in the
three intersected members.
5. An alternative approach is to write a single equation that can be solved for the force in
the desired member. To do so, first observe whether the forces exerted by the other two
members on the free body are parallel or whether their lines of action intersect
.
 If these forces are parallel, you can eliminate them by writing an equilibrium
equation involving components in a direction perpendicular to these two forces.
 If their lines of action intersect at a point H, you can eliminate them by writing an
equilibrium equation involving moments about H.
6. Keep in mind that the section you use must intersect three members only. The reason is
that the equilibrium equations in Step 4 can be solved for only three unknowns. However,
you can pass a section through more than three members to find the force in one of those
members if you can write an equilibrium equation containing only that force as an
unknown.
Note: A section passed through a truss does not have to be a vertical or horizontal; it can be
diagonal as well. Choose the orientation that cuts through no more than three members of
unknown force and also gives you the simplest part of the truss for which you can write
equilibrium equations and determine the unknowns.
Example 3: Determine the forces in

members EF and GI of the truss shown.
Example 4: Determine the forces in

members FH, GH, and GI of the roof truss
shown.
Graphical Method
This method involves plotting all the applied forces in sequence of their application and
according to scale in both magnitude and direction (head-to-tail) to form a force polygon,
naming each force by letter for clarity of identification. The direction (inclination) of each
structural member is then plotted from the point of intersection of the forces adjacent to it, one at
a time. Plot of the members that serve as legs of the angle between them will meet in at a
common point in the resulting diagram. This point of meeting (intersection) will be the starting
point of the plot for the next member that serve as a leg of the angle between it and any of the
member plotted before. The process is repeated until all the members have been plotted. The
magnitudes of the bar forces are then determined by measuring their plots according to the same
scale used in plotting the applied forces.
Exercises:
Problem No. 1: Using the method of joints,

determine the force in each member of the truss
shown. State whether each member is in tension or
compression.
Problem No. 2: Using the method of joints,

determine the force in each member of the
truss shown. State whether each member is
in tension or compression.
Problem No. 3: Determine the force in

each member of the Gambrel roof truss
shown. State whether each member is in
tension or compression.
Problem No. 4: Determine the force in each

member of the Pratt bridge truss shown. State
whether each member is in tension or
compression.

each of the members located to the left of
FG for the scissors roof truss shown. State
whether each member is in tension or
compression.
Problem No. 6: A Mansard roof truss

is loaded as shown. Determine the
force in members DF, DG, and EG.

members CD and DF of the truss shown.
Problem No. 8: A monosloped roof

truss is loaded as shown. Determine
the force in members CE, DE, and
DF.
Problem No. 9: Determine the force in members DG and FI

of the truss shown. (Hint: Use section aa.)
Exercises Key:
1. AB = 7.20 kN T, BC = 7.80 kN C, AC = 12 kN C
2. AD = 7 kN C, AB = 0, CF = 7 kN C, BC = 0, BD = 34 kN C, DE = 30 kN T, BF = 34 kN C,
EF = 30 kN T, BE = 8 kN T
3. AB = 5 kN C, AC = 4 kN T, BC = 0, CE = 4 kN T, BE = 0.2 kN C, BD = 4 kN C, FH = 5
kN C, HG = 4 kN T, EG = 4 kN T, FG = 0, DF = 4 kN C, EF = 0.2 kN C, DE = 0.24 kN T
4. AB = 7.5 kN C, AC = 4.5 kN T, CE = 4.5 kN T, BC = 4 kN T, BE = 2.5 kN T, BD = 6 kN
C, DE = 0, DF = 6 kN C, FH = 7.5 kN C, HG = 4.5 kN T, FG = 4 kN T, EG = 4.5 kN T, EF =
2.5 kN T
5. AC = 7.83 kN T, AB = 9.90 kN C, CE = 7.83 kN T, BC = 0, BE = 2 kN C, BD = 7.07 kN C,
EG = 5.59 kN T, DE = 1 kN T, DG = 0.56 kN C, DF = 5.03 kN C
6. DF = 5.45 kN C; DG = 1.000 kN T; EG = 4.65 kN T
7. CD = 20.0 kN C; DF = 52.0 kN C
8. CE = 7.20 kN T; DE = 1.047 kN C; DF = 6.39 kN C
9. DG = 3.75 kN T; FI = 3.75 kN C
Module 8: Cables
References:
Education.
Khurmi, R.S. (n.d.). A Textbook of Engineering Mechanics 20th Multicolor Edition. S. Chand & Company Ltd.
Introduction:
Cable, in its theoretical sense, is absolutely flexible, light (i.e. its weight is neglected) and
inextensible. It is capable of offering only tensile resistance. The slope of a loaded cable depends
upon its length and the loads supported by it. It will be interesting to know that if the loads
carried by the string are changed (in magnitude or position) its shape will also change.

ILO 1: Differentiate the attributes of forces and force derivatives.
ILO 2: Calculate the various effects and uses of forces
Topic Outcomes:
 Determine the forces involved in parabolic cables.
 Determine the forces involved in catenary cables.
Parabolic Cable
Because steel is very strong in tension, it finds practical use as parabolic cable support for
suspension bridges. In parabolic cable analysis, as presented next, the load (w) is considered as
uniformly distributed along the horizontal (x). Thus, the total load (W) = wx. Tension in such a
cable is minimum at the lowest point and maximum at the highest point [where it is supported].
A FBD of one side of the cable from its lowest point should show only three forces: the
minimum tension (TO), the maximum tension (T) at the point of support and the total (resultant)
load (W) acting midway between the lowest point & the point of support. If the distance between
the lowest point and the point of support is y, then y = wx2 / 2TO. Drawing a 3-force diagram
from this, if the angle between T and TO is θ, the following formula for parabolic cables are
formulated: T sinθ = W; T cosθ = TO; T2 = To2 + W2, T2 = To2 + w2x2.
Consider the cable shown with points A and B on the same level and loaded with uniformly
distributed load w along its horizontal span (l). The cable sag at point C is denoted as yc.
the vertical reaction at point A and B can be calculated as:
taking moment about C:
therefore:
solving for maximum tension, we have:
and the minimum tension in the cable will be as C:

Example 1: A suspension cable, with supports at the same level, has a span of 30 m and
maximum dip of 3 m. The cable is loaded with a uniformly distributed load of 10 kN/m
throughout its length. Find, from first principles, the maximum tension in the cable.
Solution:
Given: Span (l) = 30 m; Maximum dip (yc ) = 3 m and uniformaly distributed load (w) = 10
kN/m
Solve for vertical reactions:
Calculate for the horizontal reaction:
The maximum tension in the cable is:
(Answer)
Catenary Cable
Electricity distribution / transmission cables hang by their own weight. These are analyzed as
catenary cables. The shape, which a cable takes up because of its own weight (without any
external load) is called catenary.
Consider cable suspended at two points A and B at different levels (or same level) hanging freely
under its own weight with C as the lowest point as shown.
Assume that w = Weight per unit length of the cable. Now consider any point (P) on the cable
such that length of the cable CP be s. Now draw the tangent at P. Let ψ be the inclination of the
tangent with the horizontal as shown in the figure. We know that part CP of the cable is in
equilibrium under the action of the following forces.
 Load (w.s) of the cable acting vertically downwards.
 Horizontal pull (H) acting horizontally at C.
 Tension (T) acting at P along the tangent.
In catenary cable analysis, the load (w) is considered as uniformly distributed along the cable
itself (s). Thus, the total load (W) = ws. Tension in such a cable is minimum at the lowest point
and maximum at the highest point [where it is supported]. A FBD of one side of the cable from
its lowest point should show only three forces: the minimum tension (TO), the maximum tension
(T) at the point of support and the total (resultant) load (W) acting midway along the cable’s
length s. Illustrating a catenary cable needs the catenary constant “c,” the distance from the
origin to the cable’s lowest point. Numerically, c = T O/w, therefore TO = wc.
The other catenary cable formulas are: s = c sinh [x/c]; y = c cosh [x/c]; c2 = y2 – s2 ; T = wy; W
= ws.
General Equation of Catenary
Example 2: A heavy string ABCDE 10 m long hangs over two smooth pegs B and D as shown.
Locate the position of vertex C from the peg B along the string.
Solution:
Given: Total Length of string (L) = 10 m
Let:
l = Length of the secment BC
Length of segment BCD = 10 – 2.5 – 2.0 = 5.5 m

Length of segment CD = 5.5 – l
For point B:
y = 2.5 m and s = l
For point D:
y = 2.0 m and s = (5.5 – l)
Substitute to the general equation of catenary:
(For Point B.)
(For Point D.)

Then finding l:
Exercises:
Problem No. 1: A suspension cable of span 30 m has a central dip of 3m. Find the length of the
cable, if it carries a uniformly distributed load of 7.5 kN/m.
Problem No. 2: A cable carries a uniformly distributed load w = 80 N/m. The horizontal span
between supports is 200 m. The sag of the cable at its midspan is 10 m. Determine the maximum
tension and minimum tension of the cable.
Problem No. 3: A suspension cable of 120 m span hangs between two points which are 9 m and
4 m above the lowest point of the cable. Find the length of the cable
Problem No. 4: A cable of span 50 m is suspended from two pegs 6 m and 1.25 m above the
lowest point of the cable. Find (i) horizontal tension in the cable and (ii) length of the cable
between two pegs. The cable is loaded with a uniformly distributed load of 5 kN/m
Problem No. 5: A suspension cable of 120 m span hangs between two points which are 9 m and
4 m above the lowest point of the cable. Find the length of the cable.
Exercises Key:
1 30.8 m
2.
3.
4.
5.

Statics of Rigid Bodies

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Statics of Rigid Bodies

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Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

Module 1: Fundamental Concepts in Mechanics

Intended Learning Outcomes:

Fundamental Concepts and Principles

The study of elementary mechanics rests on six fundamental principles, based on

 Newton’s Law of Gravitation. Two particles of mass M and

International System of Units (SI Units)

Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol

Principal SI Units Used in Mechanics

Quantity Unit Symbol Formula

Acceleration Meter per second squared … m/s2

U.S. Customary Units and Their SI Equivalents

Quantity U.S. Customary Unit SI Equivalent

Vector vs Scalar Quantities

Awareness for Learning

Concept Definition Diagram(s) Properties/ Effects Formula

Real life application

Module 2: Equivalent Force Systems

Intended Learning Outcomes:

Resolution of a Force into Components

Two cases in resolving the force F into components:

Awareness for Learning

Adding Force by Components

Adding forces using their components, especially

Rectangular Components of a Force: Unit Vectors

Force in Terms of Unit Vectors

 To simplify working with rectangular components,

Or by using, FX = F cos θ FY = F sin θ

Addition of forces by summing x and y components

 R can be obtained by constructing a parallelogram, using P and Q as two adjacent sides.

Resultant of Concurrent Forces

Resultant of Parallel Forces

Awareness for Learning

First, we resolve each force into its x and y components,

From the vector addition,

Sample Problem 2. Two tugboats are pulling a

a. Tension for α = 45°. Graphical Solution. The parallelogram law is

T1 = 3700 lb, T2 = 2600 lb

T1 / sin 45° = T2 / sin 30° = 5000 lb / sin 105°

Simplifying the equation, we obtain

b. Value of a for Minimum T2. To determine the value of

T2 = (5000 lb) sin 30° = 2500 lb

Corresponding values of T1 and α are

1) A steel tank is to be positioned in an excavation.

2) Two forces are applied as shown to a hook. Determine

3) Two structural members B and C are bolted to bracket A.

4) A stake is being pulled out of the ground by means of two

5) Two forces P and Q are applied to the lid of a storage

The Principle of Moments

Application: In some cases it is more

Resolution of a force into a force and a couple

Resolution of a Force into a Force and a Couple

Sample Problem. Four tugboats are bringing

b. Single Tugboat. The force exerted by a single tugboat

1) In figure, assuming clockwise moments as positive,

2) Locate the amount and position of the

3) Determine the resultant of the four parallel forces

4) Replace the couple and force shown by an equivalent single

5) Two 80-N forces are applied as shown to the

6) The three-step pulley shown in figure is subjected to the given

7) A worker tries to move a rock by applying a

8) Compute the resultant of the three forces shown

9) Determine completely the resultant of the forces acting on the

10) A 4.80-m-long beam is subjected to