Read and react.

Read and react.

Read and react.
1. What is philosophy?
2. What is your philosophy in life? 

Anthropology
PHILOSOPHY
from Greek words philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom), ‘'love of
wisdom‘; probably coined by Pythagoras (570 – 495 BCE). ’
initially, referred to any body of knowledge (thus, philosophy is
closely related  to religion, mathematics, natural science,
education, and politics)
 the study of general and fundamental questions  about existence,
knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. 
Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion,
rational argument, and systematic  presentation. 
PHILOSOPHY
Historically, philosophy encompassed all bodies of knowledge. 

From the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th

century, "natural philosophy"  encompassed astronomy, medicine,
and physics.
PHILOSOPHY
Historically, philosophy encompassed all bodies of knowledge. 
Major subfields of academic philosophy include:
1. Metaphysics - concerned with the fundamental  nature of
existence and reality
2. Epistemology - studies the nature of knowledge and belief
3. Ethics - concerned with moral value
4. Logic - studies the rules of inference that allow one to  deduce
conclusions from true premises. 
In one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom,
intellectual culture, and a search for  knowledge. In this sense, all
cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions, such as
"how are we  to live" and "what is the nature of reality." 
In one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom,
intellectual culture, and a search for  knowledge. In this sense, all
cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions, such as
"how are we  to live" and "what is the nature of reality." 
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY

 the philosophical tradition of the Western world, dating back to

pre-Socratic thinkers  who were active in 6th-century Greece
(BCE), such as Thales (c. 624 – 546 BCE) and Pythagoras (c. 570
– 495  BCE) who practiced a 'love of wisdom' (Latin: philosophia)
and were also termed 'students of nature'  (physiologoi). 
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY ERAS

1. Ancient (Greco-Roman) 
2. Medieval philosophy (Christian European)
3. Modern philosophy 
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY ERAS

1. Ancient (Greco-Roman) –
 was dominated by Greek philosophical schools, which were
significantly influenced by  Socrates' teachings
 most notable among these were Plato, who founded the Platonic
Academy, and his  student Aristotle.
 Little knowledge on pre-Socratic philosophers 

 
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY ERAS
 
2. Medieval philosophy (Christian European) –
 (5th–16th centuries) the period following the fall of the Western
Roman Empire and  was dominated by the rise of Christianity and
hence reflects Judeo-Christian theological concerns as well as 
retaining continuity with Greco-Roman thought 
❖ problems such as the existence and nature of God, the nature of
faith and reason, metaphysics, the problem  of evil were discussed

3. Modern philosophy 
  
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY ERAS

3. Modern philosophy –
 begins with thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes and René
 Descartes (1596–1650). 
 following the rise of natural science, modern philosophy was
concerned with developing a secular and  rational foundation for
knowledge and moved away from traditional structures of authority
such as religion,  scholastic thought and the Church.
 
MIDDLE EASTERN PHILOSOPHY

❖ The regions of the fertile Crescent, Iran and Arabia are home to
the earliest known philosophical Wisdom  literature and is today
mostly dominated by Islamic culture. Early wisdom literature from the
fertile crescent  was a genre which sought to instruct people on
ethical action, practical living and virtue through stories and
 proverbs. 
INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
❖ Indian philosophy (Sanskrit'point of view', 'perspective') refers to
the diverse philosophical traditions that  emerged since the ancient
times on the Indian subcontinent. 
❖ Jainism and Buddhism originated at the end of the Vedic period,
while Hinduism emerged after the period  as a fusion of diverse
traditions.
  generally classify these traditions as either orthodox (āstika) or
heterodox (nāstika) depending on  whether they accept the
authority of the Vedas and the theories of brahman ('eternal',
'conscious',  'irreducible') and ātman ('soul', 'self', 'breathe')
therein. 
INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
❖ The orthodox schools include the Hindu traditions of thought,
while the heterodox schools include the  Buddhist and the Jain
traditions. 
❖ Other schools include the Ajñana, Ājīvika, and Cārvāka which
became extinct over their history. 
INDIAN PHILOSOPHY IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

 ∙ dhárma ('that which upholds or supports') 

 ∙ karma (kárman, 'act', 'action', 'performance') 
 ∙ artha ('wealth', 'property') 
 ∙ kama ('desire') 
 ∙ duḥkha ('suffering') 
 ∙ anitya (from Buddhist: anicca, 'impermanence') 
 ∙ dhyāna (or jhāna; 'meditation') 
 ∙ saṃnyāsa ('renunciation'), renouncing with or without monasticism or asceticism 
 ∙ saṃsāra ('passage' or 'wandering'), various cycles of death and rebirth 
 ∙ kaivalya ('separateness'), a state of mokṣa ('release', 'liberation', 'nirvana') from rebirth ∙
ahiṃsā ('nonviolence') 
JAIN PHILOSOPHY

 accepts the concept of a permanent soul (jiva) as one of the five

astikayas (eternal, infinite  categories that make up the substance
of existence). The other four  being dhárma, adharma, ākāśa
('space'), and pudgala ('matter'). 
 the Jain thought separates matter from the soul completely, with
two major subtraditions: Digambara ('sky  dressed', 'naked') and
Śvētāmbara ('white dressed'), along with several more minor
traditions such  as Terapanthi
JAIN PHILOSOPHY
 asceticism is a major monastic virtue in Jainism
 Jain texts such as the Tattvartha Sutra state that right faith,  right
knowledge and right conduct is the path to liberation
 the Jain thought holds that all existence is cyclic, eternal and
uncreated
 the Tattvartha Sutra is the earliest known, most comprehensive
and authoritative  compilation of Jain philosophy 
BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY
 begins with the thought of Gautama Buddha and is preserved in
the early Buddhist  texts 
 originated in India and later spread to East Asia, Tibet, Central
Asia, and Southeast Asia, developing  various traditions in these
regions
❖ forms are the dominant Buddhist philosophical traditions
Mahayana, in East Asian regions such  as China, Korea and
Japan. and the Theravada forms are dominant in Southeast Asian
countries, such as Sri  Lanka, Burma and Thailand
HINDU PHILOSOPHY
 The Vedas-based orthodox schools
are a part of the Hindu traditions and
they are traditionally classified into 
six darśanas: Nyaya, Vaisheshika,
Samkhya, Yoga, 
Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta. 

AdiShankara is one of the most frequently studied Hindu

philosophers.  
EAST ASIAN PHILOSOPHY

East Asian philosophical thought began in Ancient China, and

  

Chinese philosophy begins during the Western  Zhou Dynasty. 

1. significant intellectual and cultural developments

2. rise of the  major philosophical schools of China, Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism as
well as numerous other less  influential schools.
EAST ASIAN PHILOSOPHY
These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political
and ethical theories such Tao, Yin and  Yang, Ren and Li which,
along with Chinese Buddhism, directly influenced Korean
philosophy, Vietnamese  philosophy and Japanese philosophy
  Buddhism began arriving in China during the Han Dynasty (206
BCE – 220 CE), through a gradual Silk Road transmission and
through native influences developed distinct Chinese forms (such
as Chan/Zen) which  spread throughout the East Asian cultural
sphere. 
 ANTHROPOLOGY

https://cch.ldcsb.ca/apps/pages/index.jsp?
https://dlsii.com/blog/tag/humanities-and-social-sciences/ https://stock.adobe.com/images/natural-science-word-
uREC_ID=1076354&type=d&pREC_ID=1359832
cloud/271932344
ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology builds upon knowledge from natural sciences,
including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of Homo
sapiens, human physical traits, human behavior, the variations
among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past
of Homo sapiens has influenced its social organization and culture,
and from social sciences, including the organization of human
social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Humanities answer four important questions:
1. What am I?
2. Why am I what I am?
3. Why am I in this world?
4. Where do I go from here?
ANTHROPOLOGY
❖ Socio-cultural Anthropology
❖ Biological Anthropology
SOCIOCULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
comparative study of the
manifold ways in which people
make sense of the world around
them

the study of the

relationships among
individuals and groups
 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

CULTUR
E
Cultural anthropology is more related to philosophy,
literature and the arts (how one's culture affects the
experience for self and group, contributing to a more
complete understanding of the people's knowledge,
customs, and institutions)
SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY

SOCIET
Y
Social anthropology is more related to sociology and
history. ∙ In that, it helps develop an understanding of social
structures, typically of others and other populations
SOCIOCULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
comparative study of the
manifold ways in which people
make sense of the world around
them

the study of the

relationships among
individuals and groups
https://www.dw.com/en/how-can-8-billion-people-
sustainably-share-a-planet/a-63729664
SOCIOCULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

https://www.dw.com/en/how-can-8-billion-people-sustainably-share-a-planet/a-63729664
SOCIOCULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

https://www.dw.com/en/how-can-8-billion-people-sustainably-share-a-planet/a-63729664
ETHNOGRAPHY
is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or
other research site. Participant observation is one of the
foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology. ∙
Ethnology involves the systematic comparison of different
cultures.
 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
SOCIETY
- (etymology) from Latin word societas, which in turn was derived
from the noun socius ("comrade, friend, ally"; adjectival form
socialis) used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that
are friendly, or at least civil
SOCIOCULTURAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
1. Art
❖ Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories of
'painting', 'sculpture', or 'literature', conceived as independent
artistic activities, do not exist, or exist in a significantly different
form, in most non-Western contexts.
❖ To surmount this difficulty, anthropologists of art have focused on
formal features in objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic’
SOCIOCULTURAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
2. Media
❖ Media anthropology (also known as the anthropology of media or
mass media) emphasizes ethnographic studies as a means of
understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social
aspects of mass media.
❖ The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts
of media production to contexts of media reception, following
audiences in their everyday responses to media.
SOCIOCULTURAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
3. Music
❖ Ethnomusicology can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as
teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc. ∙ While the origins of
ethnomusicology date back to the 18th and 19th centuries, it was
formally introduced as “ethnomusicology” by Dutch scholar
JaapKunst around 1950
SOCIOCULTURAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
4. Visual
❖ Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and
production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-
1990s, new media.
❖ While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with
ethnographic film, visual anthropology also encompasses the
anthropological study of visual representation, including areas
such as performance, museums, art, and the production and
reception of mass media.
SOCIOCULTURAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
4. Visual
❖ Visual representations from all cultures, such as sand paintings,
tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry,
hieroglyphics, paintings, and photographs are included in the
focus of visual anthropology.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
Gerhard Lenski (1924)
❖ As a society advances, so does its use of technology
(society=technological sophistication .
❖ Societies with rudimentary technology depend on the fluctuations
of their environments, while industrialized societies have more
control over the impact of their surroundings and thus develop
different cultural features.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
1. Preindustrial Societies
2. Hunter-Gatherer
3. Pastoral
4. Horticultural
5. Agricultural sophistication
6. Feudal
7. Industrial Society
8. Postindustrial Society
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
1. Preindustrial Societies
❖ (before the Industrial Revolution) widespread use of machines,
societies were small, rural, and dependent largely on local resources
❖ economic production was limited to the amount of labor a human
being could provide, and there were few specialized occupations.
The very first occupation was that of hunter-gatherer.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
2. Hunter-Gatherer
❖ demonstrate the strongest dependence on the environment of the
various types of preindustrial societies.
❖ ∙the basic structure of human society until about 10,000–12,000
years ago, these groups were based around kinship or tribes
❖ relied on their surroundings for survival—they hunted wild animals
and foraged for uncultivated plants for food and moved to other
placs when resources became scarce
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
2. Hunter-Gatherer
❖ common until several hundred years ago, but today only a few
hundred remain in existence, such as indigenous Australian tribes
sometimes referred to as “aborigines,” or the Bambuti, a group of
pygmy hunter-gatherers residing in the Democratic Republic of
Congo
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY

Mbuti people or Bambuti

https://www.101lasttribes.com/tribes/mbuti.html
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
3. Pastoral
❖ Changing conditions and adaptations led some societies to rely on
the domestication of animals where circumstances permitted.
❖ Roughly 7,500 years ago, human societies began to recognize their
ability to tame and breed animals and to grow and cultivate their own
plants.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
3. Pastoral
❖ Pastoral societies, such as the Maasai villagers, rely on the
domestication of animals as a resource for survival.
❖ Herding, or pastoral, societies remained nomadic because they were
forced to follow their animals to fresh feeding grounds.
❖ Around the time that pastoral societies emerged, specialized
occupations began to develop, and societies commenced trading
with local groups.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY

Masaii Villagers in Kenya, Africa

https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/voices/culture/article/2016/07/28/should-tourists-visit-maasai-villages-if-they-were-built-tourists
 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
4. Horticultural
❖ formed in areas where rainfall and other conditions allowed them to
grow stable crops
❖ were able to start permanent settlements ( became the basis for the
first revolution in human survival)
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
5. Agricultural
❖ relied on permanent tools for survival
❖ farming became possible and profitable Agricultural Revolution (3000
BCE) , an explosion of new technology
❖ “dawn of civilization” because of the development of leisure and
humanities (Craftspeople were able to support themselves through
the production of creative, decorative, or thought-provoking aesthetic
objects and writings)
❖ social classes became more divisive
❖ difference in social standing between men and women increased
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
6. Feudal
❖ (9th century) societies contained a strict hierarchical system of power
based around land ownership and protection. The nobility, known as
lords, placed vassals in charge of pieces of land. In return for the
resources that the land provided, vassals promised to fight for their
lords.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
6. Feudal
Power was handed down through family lines, with peasant families
serving lords for generations and generations. Ultimately, the social
and economic system of feudalism failed and was replaced by
capitalism and the technological advances increased
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
7. Industrial Society
❖ Europe experienced a dramatic rise in technological invention,
ushering in an era known as the Industrial Revolution.
❖ In 1782, James Watt and Matthew Boulton created a steam engine
that could do the work of twelve horses by itself.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
7. Industrial Society
❖ The new generation became less preoccupied with maintaining
family land and traditions and more focused on acquiring wealth and
achieving upward mobility for themselves and their families. People
wanted their children and their children’s children to continue to rise
to the top, and as capitalism increased, so did social mobility.
❖ ∙ It was during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries of the
Industrial Revolution that sociology was born.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
8. Postindustrial (Digital/Information) Society
❖ Based on the production of information and services
❖ Digital technology is the steam engine of information societies, and
computer moguls such as Steve Jobs and Bill Gates are its John D.
Rockefellers and Cornelius Vanderbilts
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SOCIETY
8. Postindustrial (Digital/Information) Society
❖ Since the economy of information societies is driven by knowledge
and not material goods, power lies with those in charge of storing
and distributing information. Members of a postindustrial society are
likely to be employed as sellers of services—software programmers
or business consultants, for example—instead of producers of
goods. Social classes are divided by access to education, since
without technical skills, people in an information society lack the
means for success.