Vectors

Vectors
You need to know how to use Cartesian coordinates Find the distance from the origin to the point P(4, 2, 5)
in 3 dimensions z

Cartesian coordinates in three dimensions are usually

referred to as the x, y and z axes, each at right-angles y
to the other.
5
Coordinates in 3 dimensions are given in the form
(x, y, z)
z
4 2
y x

Imagine the x and y-axes You can use the 3D version of Pythagoras’ Theorem
have fallen down flat, and  The distance from the origin to the point (x, y, z)
the z-axis sticks up is given by:

√ 𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧
vertically out of the 2 2 2
origin…

¿ √ 4 + 2 +5
x 2 2 2

¿ 6.71 (2dp) 5E
 Vectors
You need to know how to use Cartesian coordinates in Find the distance between the points A(1, 3, 4) and
3 dimensions B(8, 6, -5)

Cartesian coordinates in three dimensions are usually First calculate the vector
referred to as the x, y and z axes, each at right-angles
to the other.
𝐴𝐵=¿ 𝒃 − 𝒂 from A to B

( ) ()
8 1
¿ 6 − 3
Coordinates in 3 dimensions are given in the form
(x, y, z) −5 4
z

( )
7
¿ 3
y −9
Then use 3D
¿ 𝐴𝐵∨¿ √ 72 +3 2+(−9)2 Pythagoras

¿ √ 139
x
¿ 11.8 (1dp)

5E
 Vectors
The coordinates of A and B are (5, 0, 3) and (4, 2, k)
You need to know how to use Cartesian coordinates in respectively. Given that |AB| is 3 units, find the possible
3 dimensions values of k

() ()
Cartesian coordinates in three dimensions are usually 4 5
𝐴𝐵= 2 − 0 Calculate AB using k
referred to as the x, y and z axes, each at right-angles
to the other. 𝑘 3

( )
−1
Coordinates in 3 dimensions are given in the form (x, y, z) 𝐴𝐵= 2
𝑘−3 Use Pythagoras
in 3D

z | 𝐴𝐵|=√(−1)2 +22+(𝑘− 3)2 Careful when squaring

| 𝐴𝐵|=√ 𝑘2 −6 𝑘+14
the bracket
|AB| = 3
3=√ 𝑘 − 6 𝑘+14
y 2
Square both sides
2
9=𝑘 − 6 𝑘+14
Solve as a quadratic
2
0=𝑘 − 6 𝑘+5
0=(𝑘−5)(𝑘 −1)
x 𝑘=5 𝑜𝑟 𝑘=1
5E
 Vectors
You can extend the two dimensional vector results to The points A and B have position vectors 4i + 2j + 7k
3 dimensions, using k as the unit vector parallel to and 3i + 4j – k respectively. Find |AB| and show that
the z-axis triangle OAB is isosceles.

 The vectors i, j and k are unit vectors parallel to the 𝐴𝐵=𝒃− 𝒂 Find the vector AB

( ) ()
x, y and z-axes in the increasing directions 3 4
𝐴𝐵= 4 − 2
 The vector xi + yj + zk can be written as a column −1 7

( ) ¿ 𝐴𝐵∨¿ √(− 1)2 +22 +(− 8)2

matrix: −1
𝐴𝐵= 2

()
𝑥 −8
𝑦
𝑧
¿ 𝐴𝐵∨¿ √ 69 Now find the
 The modulus (magnitude) of xi + yj + zk is given by: magnitude of AB
¿𝑂𝐴∨¿ √ 4 2+22+7 2
¿𝑂𝐴∨¿ √69
√ 𝑥 2
+ 𝑦 2
+ 𝑧 2
Find the magnitude
¿ 𝑂𝐵∨¿ √ 3 +4 +(− 1)
2 2 2
of OA and OB using
their position
¿𝑂𝐵∨¿ √ 26 vectors
Isosceles as 2 vectors are equal… 5F
 Vectors
You can extend the two dimensional vector results a) Find |AB| Calculate the vector AB
to 3 dimensions, using k as the unit vector parallel
to the z-axis 𝐴𝐵=𝒃− 𝒂

( )( )
2𝑡 𝑡
The points A and B have the coordinates (t, 5, t-1) and 𝐴𝐵= 𝑡 − 5
(2t, t, 3) respectively. 3 𝑡 −1

( )
𝑡
a) Find |AB|
𝐴𝐵= 𝑡 − 5
4−𝑡 Find the magnitude
b) By differentiating |AB|2, find the value of t for of AB in terms of t
which |AB| is a minimum
|
Careful with
c) Hence, find the minimum value of |AB| the bracket
|
expansion!

5F
 Vectors
|
You can extend the two dimensional vector results
to 3 dimensions, using k as the unit vector
parallel to the z-axis b) By differentiating |AB|2, find the value of t for
which |AB| is a minimum
The points A and B have the coordinates (t, 5, t-1)
and (2t, t, 3) respectively. |
Square both sides
a) Find |AB| |
Differentiate (often p is
𝑑𝑝 used to represent the
b) By differentiating |AB|2, find the value of t for =6 𝑡 − 18
which |AB| is a minimum 𝑑𝑡 vector)
Set equal to 0 for a minimum
0=6 𝑡 − 18 Solve
c) Hence, find the minimum value of |AB|
3=𝑡
The value of t = 3 is the value for which the
distance between the points A and B is the smallest..

It is possible to do this by differentiating |AB|

rather than |AB|2, but it can be more difficult!

5F
 Vectors
|
You can extend the two dimensional vector results to
3 dimensions, using k as the unit vector parallel to 𝑡 =3
the z-axis
c) Hence, find the minimum value of |AB|
The points A and B have the coordinates (t, 5, t-1) and
(2t, t, 3) respectively. | Sub in the value of t

a) Find |AB| |

b) By differentiating |AB|2, find the value of t for |

which |AB| is a minimum
| (2dp)
c) Hence, find the minimum value of |AB|
So for the given coordinates, the closest that points
A and B could be is 3.74 units apart, when t = 3.

5F
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the scalar product of a
two vectors in 2 or 3 dimensions, and how it can be used 30°
to calculate the angle between 2 vectors
X
b
On the diagram to the right, the angle between a and b is θ.
The two vectors must be directed away from point X

On the second diagram, vector b is directed towards X.

Hence, the angle between the two vectors is 160°. a

This comes from re-drawing the diagram with vector b 20°

pointing away from point X. X b

a
160°
20°

b X b

5G
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the scalar product Vector multiplication
of two vectors in 2 or 3 dimensions, and how it can be
used to calculate the angle between 2 vectors

a b
The scalar product of two vectors a and b is written as a.b
(‘a dot b’) and is defined by:
a.b = |a||b| By multiplication
𝒂 .𝒃=|𝒂|∨𝒃∨𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
The scalar product can be thought of as ‘the effect of one
of the two vectors on the other’

a
In this case, the vector a can b
be split into a horizontal and θ
vertical component |a|cosθ
 Here we only consider the
a.b = |a|cosθ|b| This is the formula
horizontal component as this
for the scalar ‘dot’
is in the direction of vector b
By trigonometry a.b = |a||b|cosθ product of 2
vectors

5G
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the scalar product
of two vectors in 2 or 3 dimensions, and how it can be
used to calculate the angle between 2 vectors
a
b
The scalar product of two vectors a and b is written as a.b
(‘a dot b’) and is defined by:

𝒂 .𝒃=|𝒂|∨𝒃∨𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 If two vectors are perpendicular, then the angle

between them is 90°.
 As cos90° = 0, this will cause the dot product to
This formula can be rewritten in order to find the angle
be 0 as well
between 2 vectors:
 Hence, if vectors are perpendicular, the dot
product is 0
𝒂.𝒃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=  If the dot product is 0, the vectors are
|𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿ perpendicular

5G
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the scalar product of If a = x1i + y1j + z1k and b = x2i + y2j + z2k
two vectors in 2 or 3 dimensions, and how it can be
used to calculate the angle between 2 vectors Then:

( ) ( )¿ 𝑥 𝑥 +𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑧
𝑥1 𝑥2
The scalar product of two vectors a and b is written as a.b 𝒂 . 𝒃= 𝑦 1 . 𝑦 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
(‘a dot b’) and is defined by: 𝑧1 𝑧2

𝒂 .𝒃=|𝒂|∨𝒃∨𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
This formula can be rewritten in order to find the angle
between 2 vectors:
This is a way to find the dot
𝒂.𝒃 product from 2 vectors
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=
|𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿
If we are to use this formula to work out the angle between
2 vectors, we therefore need an alternative way to
calculate the scalar product…

5G
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the scalar product of Given that a = 8i – 5j – 4k and b = 5i + 4j – k:
two vectors in 2 or 3 dimensions, and how it can be used
to calculate the angle between 2 vectors a) Find a.b

( )( )
𝑥1 𝑥2 Use the dot
𝒂 . 𝒃= 𝑦 1 . 𝑦 2 product
The scalar product of two vectors a and b is written as a.b (‘a
𝑧1 𝑧2
dot b’) and is defined by: formula

( )( )
8 5
𝒂 .𝒃=|𝒂|∨𝒃∨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝒂 . 𝒃= − 5 . 4
This formula can be rewritten in order to find the angle −4 −1
between 2 vectors:
𝒂 . 𝒃= ( 8 ×5 ) + ( −5 × 4 ) +(− 4 ×−1)
𝒂.𝒃 𝒂 . 𝒃=24
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃=
|𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿
If a = x1i + y1j + z1k and b = x2i + y2j + z2k
Then:

( )( )¿ 𝑥 𝑥 +𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑧
𝑥1 𝑥2
𝒂 . 𝒃= 𝑦 1 . 𝑦 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑧1 𝑧2

5G
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the scalar product of Given that a = 8i – 5j – 4k and b = 5i + 4j – k:
two vectors in 2 or 3 dimensions, and how it can be used
to calculate the angle between 2 vectors a) Find a.b 𝒂 . 𝒃=24
b) Calculate the angle between vectors a and b
The scalar product of two vectors a and b is written as a.b
(‘a dot b’) and is defined by: 𝒂.𝒃 Use the angle formula – you will
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃= need to calculate the magnitude
𝒂 .𝒃=|𝒂|∨𝒃∨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 |𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿ of each vector as well…
This formula can be rewritten in order to find the angle
between 2 vectors: |a |b

|a |b
𝒂.𝒃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃=
|𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿
𝒂.𝒃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=
If a = x1i + y1j + z1k and b = x2i + y2j + z2k |𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿ Sub in the
Then: values
24
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃=

( )( ) √ 105 √ 42
𝑥1 𝑥2 Solve, remembering
𝒂 . 𝒃= 𝑦 1 . 𝑦 2 ¿ 𝑥1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 1 𝑦 2 +𝑧 1 𝑧 2 to use inverse Cos
𝑧1 𝑧2 𝜃=68.8 °
5G
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the scalar product of Given that the vectors a = 2i – 6j + k and b = 5i + 2j + λk
two vectors in 2 or 3 dimensions, and how it can be used are perpendicular, calculate the value of λ.
to calculate the angle between 2 vectors

( )( )
𝑥1 𝑥2
𝒂 . 𝒃= 𝑦 1 . 𝑦 2
The scalar product of two vectors a and b is written as a.b 𝑧1 𝑧2
(‘a dot b’) and is defined by: Calculate the dot

( )( )
2 5 product in terms of λ
𝒂 .𝒃=|𝒂|∨𝒃∨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝒂 . 𝒃= − 6 . 2
1 λ
This formula can be rewritten in order to find the angle
between 2 vectors:
𝒂 . 𝒃= ( 2× 5 ) + ( −6 × 2 ) +(1 × λ)
𝒂.𝒃 𝒂 . 𝒃=− 2+λ As the vectors are
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=
|𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿ perpendicular, the dot product
0=−2+ λ Solve
must be 0
If a = x1i + y1j + z1k and b = x2i + y2j + z2k
λ=2
Then:

( )( )¿ 𝑥 𝑥 +𝑦 𝑦 +𝑧 𝑧
𝑥1 𝑥 2
𝒂 . 𝒃= 𝑦 1 . 𝑦 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 Only this value of λ will cause these
𝑧1 𝑧2
vectors to be perpendicular…

5G
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the scalar product  Let the required vector be xi + yj + zk
of two vectors in 2 or 3 dimensions, and how it can be

() ()
𝑥 𝑥 The dot products of
used to calculate the angle between 2 vectors 𝒂 . 𝑦 = 0 and 𝒃 . 𝑦 =0 both a and b with the
𝑧 𝑧 required vector will be 0

( )( ) ( )( )
−2 𝑥 4 𝑥
Given that a = -2i + 5j - 4k and b = 4i - . 𝑦 =0
5 − 8 . 𝑦 =0
8j + 5k, find a vector which is −4 𝑧 5 𝑧
perpendicular to both a and b
−2 𝑥+5 𝑦− 4 𝑧=0 Let 4 𝑥 −8 𝑦+5 𝑧=0 Let
z=1 z=1
Choosing a different value for z −2 𝑥+5 𝑦=4 4 𝑥 −8 𝑦=− 5
will lead to a vector that is a x2
different size, but which is still
pointing in the same direction (ie − 4 𝑥+10 𝑦=8 Now solve as
– perpendicular) 4 𝑥 −8 𝑦=− 5 simultaneous equations

 However, this will not work if 2 𝑦 =3

you choose z = 0 3 7
𝑦= 𝑥=
2 4

So a possible answer would be:

7 3
4
𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
2
7 𝒊+6 𝒋+4 𝒌
x4 5G
 Vectors
• You need to know the definition of the cross • Calculation of Cross Product
product of two vectors in 3 dimensions, and
what it is used for • Given the following two vectors, the process is as
follows:
• Two vectors can be multiplied using the "Cross
Product“
• If a  a1i  a2 j  a3k and b  b1i  b2 j  b3k,
• The Cross Product a × b of two vectors is another
vector that is at right angles to both

• The cross product (blue) is:

– zero in length when vectors a and b point in the same, or
opposite, direction
– reaches maximum length when vectors a and b are at
right angles
 Vectors
• Calculate the cross product of the • Properties of the cross product
following two vectors: • where is the angle between the two vectors
• a  2i  3 j  4k & b  i  2 j  2k • The above formula can also be used the determine
the area of a parallelogram

.
b height  b sin 

• Area = a
 Vectors
y
You need to be able to write the equation of a
straight line in vector form (effectively the
equation of a 3D line!)

Let us first consider how this is done in 2

dimensions
x

So any linear 2D graph needs a direction, and a

point on the line

With just the direction, the line wouldn’t have a

specific path and could effectively be anywhere
𝑦 =𝑚𝑥 +𝑐
With only a given point, the line would not have a
specific direction
m is the gradient of the line c is the y-intercept
 This can also be thought of as  This is a given point on
the DIRECTION the line goes the line

5H
 Vectors
You need to be able to write the equation of a A vector equation of a straight line passing through the
straight line in vector form (effectively the point A with position vector a (effectively the coordinate),
equation of a 3D line!) and parallel to the vector b, is:

𝒓 =𝒂+𝑡 𝒃
In 3D, we effectively need the same bits of
where t is a scalar parameter
information

 We need any point on the line (ie – a

coordinate in the form (x, y, z))

 We also need to know the direction the line is

travelling (a vector with terms i, j and k)

5H
 Vectors
You need to be able to write the equation of Find a vector equation of the straight line which passes
a straight line in vector form (effectively the through a, with position vector 3i – 5j + 4k, and is parallel
equation of a 3D line!) to the vector 7i – 3k

( ) ( )
3 7
𝒂= − 5 𝒃= 0
A vector equation of a straight line passing through 4 −3
the point A with position vector a (effectively the
coordinate), and parallel to the vector b, is:

This is the position This is the direction

𝒓 =𝒂+𝑡 𝒃 vector we will use vector we will use

where t is a scalar parameter

𝒓 =𝒂+𝑡 𝒃

( ) ( )
3 7
𝒓 =¿ − 5 +𝑡 0 This is the vector
4 −3 equation of the line

The value t remains unspecified at this point, it can be

used later to calculate points on the vector itself, by
substituting in different values for t
5H
 Vectors
( ) ( )
3 7
You need to be able to write the equation of 𝒓 =¿ − 5 +𝑡 0
a straight line in vector form (effectively 4 −3
the equation of a 3D line!)
Some alternative forms

𝒓 =3 𝒊−5 𝒋+4 𝒌+𝑡 (7 𝒊−3 𝒌)

A vector equation of a straight line passing
through the point A with position vector a (By writing in a different form)
(effectively the coordinate), and parallel to the
vector b, is:
𝒓 =( 3 𝒊+7 𝑡 ) 𝒊+(−5) 𝒋 +(4 −3 𝑡)𝒌
𝒓 =𝒂+𝑡 𝒃 (By multiplying out the brackets and then re-
grouping i, j and k terms)
where t is a scalar parameter

( )
3+7 𝑡
𝒓= −5
4 −3 𝑡

(By rewriting again in the original column vector form)

5H
 Vectors
You need to be able to write the equation of a Find a vector equation of the straight line passing
straight line in vector form (effectively the through the points A and B, with coordinates (4, 5, -1) and
equation of a 3D line!) (6, 3, 2) respectively.

( ) ()
4 6
𝒂= 5 𝒃= 3
Working in 2D – the equation of the line can be calculated by
−1 2
using either:
a) The gradient (direction) and a coordinate (like we just
Calculating b – a will give you the

()( )
did) 6 4
b) Two coordinates (since you can calculate the gradient vector AB, ie) the direction
𝒃 − 𝒂= 3 − 5
between them) vector that passes through A
2 −1
and B
3D can also be done either way…

( )
2
𝒃 − 𝒂= − 2
A vector equation of a straight line passing through the
3
points A and B, with position vectors a and b respectively, is
given by:

𝒓 =𝒂+𝑡 (𝒃 − 𝒂) 𝒓 =𝒂+𝑡 (𝒃 − 𝒂)
where t is a scalar parameter Then use (b – a) along with

( ) ( )
4 2 either of the 2
As you aren’t given the direction vector in this type, you 𝒓 = 5 +𝑡 − 2 coordinates/position vectors
have to work it out by calculating the vector AB (b – a) −1 3 you’re given

5H
 Vectors
You need to be able to write the equation of a The straight line l has a vector equation:
straight line in vector form (effectively the r = (3i + 2j – 5k) + t(i – 6j – 2k)
equation of a 3D line!)
Given that the point (a, b, 0) lies on l, calculate the values
of a and b
The top numbers give the x

( ) ( )
A vector equation of a straight line passing
through the points A and B, with position
3 1 3+𝑡=𝑎 coordinate, the middles
give the y, and the bottom
vectors a and b respectively, is given by:
𝑟 = 2 +𝑡 − 6 2 −6 𝑡=𝑏 gives the z, all for an
−5 −2 −5 − 2𝑡=0 unknown value of t (at this
point)
𝒓 =𝒂+𝑡 (𝒃 − 𝒂)
where t is a scalar parameter We can use the bottom equation to find the value of t

As you aren’t given the direction vector in this −5 − 2𝑡=0

type, you have to work it out by calculating the
vector AB (b – a)
𝑡=−2.5
3+𝑡=𝑎 2 −6 𝑡=𝑏
3+(−2.5)=𝑎 2 −6 (−2.5)=𝑏
0.5=𝑎 17=𝑏
The coordinate itself is (0.5, 17, 0)
5H
 Vectors
The straight line l has vector equation:
You need to be able to write the equation of a r = (2i + 5j – 3k) + t(6i – 2j + 4k)
straight line in vector form (effectively the Show that an alternative vector equation of l is:
equation of a 3D line!) r = (8i + 3j + k) + t(3i – j + 2k)

( ) ( ) () ( )
2 6 8 3
𝑟= 5 +𝑡 −2 𝑟 = 3 +𝑡 − 1
A vector equation of a straight line passing through the −3 4 1 2
points A and B, with position vectors a and b respectively, is
given by: Original vector If you look at the direction vectors, one is a multiple
updated with a of the other
𝒓 =𝒂+𝑡 (𝒃 − 𝒂) different ‘b’  This means they are parallel and hence it does not
where t is a scalar parameter part matter which you use…

( ) ( )
2 3
As you aren’t given the direction vector in this type, you have 𝑟 = 5 +𝑡 − 1
to work it out by calculating the vector AB (b – a) −3 2
If t = 2

( )( )
2 6
1) Rewrite the original straight line equation with a
different direction vector
𝑟 = 5 + −2
−3 4
2) Then try to find a value for t that will give you the

()
given coordinate as an answer 8
So a coordinate on
 This shows that the given coordinate is on the line and 𝑟= 3 the line is (8, 3, 1)
hence, can be used in the vector equation 1

() ( )
8 3
𝑟 = 3 +𝑡 − 1
1 2 5H
 Link to Autograph
Vectors
You need to be able to determine whether two
given straight lines intersect

Up until now we have used t as the scalar parameter

 If we have more than one vector equation, then s is usually
used to the other
Eg)
𝒓 =( 5 𝒊+2 𝒋 − 3 𝒌 ) +𝑡 (2 𝒊−3 𝒋+𝒌)
𝒓 =( 4 𝒊 −5 𝒋 +2 𝒌 ) +𝑠(𝒊 − 𝒋+6 𝒌)

Sometimes the Greek letters λ and μ are used as well.

𝒓 =( 2 𝒊 − 𝒋 +2 𝒌 ) +λ (𝟒 𝒊 −2 𝒋 −2 𝒌)
𝒓 =( 3 𝒊 −5 𝒋+4 𝒌 )+𝜇(3 𝒊 − 3 𝒋+2 𝒌)
It is important to note that in 3 dimensions, 2 straight lines
may pass each other without intersecting!

5I
 Vectors
3+2 𝑡
( ) ( ) −2+3
3 2
You need to be able to determine whether two 8 −𝑡
𝑟 = 8 +𝑡 − 1

given straight lines intersect

−2 3 𝑡 Find the x, y and z
coordinates in terms

( ) ( ) 3+4 +4𝑠𝑠
7+2 𝑠
7 2 of t and s
𝑟 = 4 +𝑠 1
It is important to note that in 3 dimensions, 2 straight
3 4
lines may pass each other without intersecting!
If there is a point of intersection, then at this point the
equations for the x, y and z coordinates in terms of t and s will
1a) Show that the lines with vector equations: be equal…
 Solve 2 of the equations simultaneously, and then check if the
answers also satisfy the third
r = (3i + 8j – 2k) + t(2i – j + 3k)
Solve
and r = (7i + 4j + 3k) + s(2i + j + 4k) 3+2 𝑡=7+2 𝑠 2𝑡 −2 𝑠=4 simultaneously
intersect. 8 −𝑡=4+𝑠 −𝑡 − 𝑠=− 4 by making
either the t
rearrange
𝑠=1 𝑡 =3 or s terms
‘equal’

−2+3 𝑡=3+4 𝑠 Sub s and t into the 3rd pair –

if it ‘works’ then the lines
−2+3 (3)=3+4 (1) intersect. If not, then they
7=7 don’t…

So the lines DO intersect

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 Vectors
( ) ( )
3 2
𝑟 = 8 +𝑡 − 1
You need to be able to determine whether two Sub t = 3 into the
−2 3
given straight lines intersect first equation and

( ) ( )
3 2
calculate the
𝑟= 8 +3 −1
It is important to note that in 3 dimensions, 2 straight lines position vector
−2 3
may pass each other without intersecting!

()
9
𝑟= 5
1a) Show that the lines with vector equations: 7

r = (3i + 8j – 2k) + t(2i – j + 3k)

() ()
and r = (7i + 4j + 3k) + s(2i + j + 4k) 7 2
𝑟 = 4 +𝑠 1
intersect. 3 4 Sub s = 1 into the
second equation and

() ()
7 2 calculate the
We have just calculated that the above lines intersect for the
𝑟 = 4 +1 1 position vector
values of t = 3 and s = 1
3 4

()
b) Calculate the position vector of the point of intersection 9
𝑟= 5 You only need to choose one of the equations for the
7 substitution, as you can see, it works for both!

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 Vectors
You need to be able to calculate the angle
between any 2 straight lines

The acute angle θ between two straight lines is given by:

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=¿
Where a and b are the direction vectors of the two lines.

 The lines do not have to be intersecting – the angle is

the angle between them if one was moved along so they
do intersect

Eg) The lines to the right do not intersect, but the angle
calculated is the angle between them if one was translated
such that they do intersect

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 Vectors
You need to be able to calculate the angle between Modulus is used so that you get the acute
any 2 straight lines angle rather than the obtuse one

1 y = Cosθ
The acute angle θ between two straight lines is given by:
0
90 180 270 360
-1

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=¿ For example, calculating cos-1(-0.5) would give us

Where a and b are the direction vectors of the two lines.
 The lines do not have to be intersecting – the angle is the
angle between them if one was moved along so they do
intersect
the angle 120°
For example, calculating cos-1|(-0.5)| would give us
the angle 60° since -0.5 would be replaced with 0.5
Each pair will always add up to 180°

Obtuse

Acute

This is because when 2 lines cross, you will always get a straight line
with an acute and an obtuse angle on it

You need to be able to calculate the angle
between any 2 straight lines
The acute angle θ between two straight lines is given
by:
Vectors
Find the acute angle between the lines with vector equations:
r = (2i + j + k) + t(3i – 8j – k)
and r = (7i + 4j + k) + s(2i + 2j + 3k)
To do this, you only need the direction vectors

( ) ()
3 2

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=¿
𝒂= − 8 𝒃= 2
−1 3

( )( )
3 2
𝒂 . 𝒃= − 8 . 2 Calculate the dot
Where a and b are the direction vectors of the two −1 3 product, a.b
lines.
𝒂 . 𝒃= ( 3 ×2 ) + ( −8 × 2 ) +(− 1× 3)
 The lines do not have to be intersecting – the 𝒂 .𝒃=− 13
angle is the angle between them if one was moved
along so they do intersect ¿ 𝒂∨¿ √3 2+(− 8)2+(−1)2
¿𝒂∨¿ √74 Calculate the
¿ 𝒃∨¿ √ 2 +2 +3
2 2 2 magnitude of a and b

¿𝒃∨¿ √ 17
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 Vectors
You need to be able to calculate the angle
between any 2 straight lines 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=¿ Sub in the values we
have just calculated
The acute angle θ between two straight lines is
given by:
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃=
| −13
√ 74 √17 | Work out the sum

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=¿
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃=|− 0.3665 …| Since the answer is negative, we
need to ‘make it positive’ by
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃=0.3665 multiplying by -1

Where a and b are the direction vectors of the two 𝜃=68.5 °

lines.

 The lines do not have to be intersecting – the

angle is the angle between them if one was
moved along so they do intersect

𝒂 .𝒃=− 13
¿𝒂∨¿ √74
¿𝒃∨¿ √ 17
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 Vectors
You need to be able to determine the equation of Let P(x, y, z) be an arbitrary point in the plane,
a plane in 3 dimensions and let
r0 and r be the position vectors of P0 and P.
• Although a line in space is determined by a point and a
direction, a plane in space is more difficult to describe.
Then the vector r – r0 is represented by
• A single vector parallel to a plane is not enough to
convey the “direction” of the plane, but a vector
perpendicular to the plane does completely specify its
direction.

• Thus a plane in space is determined by a point P0(x0, y0,

z0) in the plane and a vector n that is orthogonal to the
plane.
This orthogonal vector n is called a normal vector.

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 Vectors
• The normal vector n is orthogonal to every • To obtain a scalar equation for the plane, we
vector in the given plane. In particular, n is write
orthogonal to r – r0 and so we have: • n = a, b, c, r = x, y, z, and r0 = x0, y0, z0.

• Then the vector equation (5) becomes

• a, b, c • x – x0, y – y0, z – z0 = 0
or
• Both equations listed above are called the
vector equation of a plane • The above equation is the scalar equation
of the plane through: P0(x0, y0, z0)
with normal vector: n = a, b, c.
 Vectors
• Find an equation of the plane through the
point (2, 4, –1) with normal vector n = 2, 3, 4.
Find the intercepts and sketch the plane.
• Solution:
• Putting a = 2, b = 3, c = 4, x0 = 2, y0 = 4, and z0 =
–1 in Equation 7, we see that an equation of
the plane is
• To find the x-intercept we set y = z = 0 in this
equation and obtain x = 6.
• Similarly, the y-intercept is 4 and the z-
intercept is 3. This enables us to sketch the
portion of the plane that lies in the first octant

• 2(x – 2) + 3(y – 4) + 4(z + 1) = 0

or
• 2x + 3y + 4z = 12
 Vectors
• Find an equation of the plane given three
points in the plane.
• E.g. A (-1, 3, 1), B(2, -2, 0), C(1, 1, -1)
• Firstly determine the vectors using any one
coordinate as the starting point:
• Find the equation of a plane passing
through C(2, 1, 5) and is perpendicular to
the line through A(0, 1, 1) and B(1, -1, -
1)
• Determine perpendicular vector:

• Determine eqn of plane

• Determine the cross product of the above 2
vectors

• Use any point given and substitute into

cartesian eqn to determine eqn of plane

– Eqn of plane
 Vectors
• You need to be able to determine the angle • Find the dihedral angle between the planeshav
between two planes ing equations x + 2y + 3z = 4 and
• Two planes that are not parallel to each other  3x – 4y + 2z = 7.
will intersect  each other.  • Solution:
– A pair of normals to the given planes are  = (1, 2, 3) and  =
• The angle between the two planes  is equal to   (3, −4, 2).  The cosine of  the angle between  and 
the angle between their normals. 
• Unless the intersection is 
a right angle, two distinct angles between the 
planes are 
created, an acute angle θ and the supplementar
y angle  180º − θ.  
• In this case we will use the smaller acute angle
  • Find the dihedral angle between the planes havin
as the angle between the two planes and refer  g equations 2x + 3y − 4z = 5 and  4x – 2y + 3z = 6.
to it as the  dihedral angle between the planes. • Solution -
 Vectors
• You need to be able to determine what
happens when two planes intersect.
• Two planes are parallel (or the same) if and
only if their normal vectors are the same or
scalar multiples of each other
• But what if two planes are not parallel? Then
they intersect, but instead of intersecting at
a single point, the set of points where they
intersect form a line
• This line will have a direction vector that is
perpendicular to both planes
• Find a vector equation of the line of
intersections of the two planes: .
• Solution
• Firstly determine the normal vectors from
both planes:
– (1, -5, 3) & (-3, 2, -2)
• Determine the orthogonal vector of these
two planes
• Determine a point on the line
– Make one variable = 0 and solve simultaneously
to determine the other 2 variables
• Determine eqn of line