Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types
1.3 Historical Development
1.4 Elements of a Bridge
Project

1.5 Design Objectives

1.6 Design Philosophy
1.1 General Introduction

 A bridge is a structure providing passage over

an obstacle
 The obstacle may be a river, a valley, a road
or a railway line
 The passage may be for a highway, railway
traffic, pedestrian, a canal or pipe line
1.1 General Introduction Contd. . . .

 Due to high flood and absence of bridges during rainy season

courts, schools and other public activities are terminated
 Thus, building a bridge will connect people separated during
rainy season
 In this regard, bridges have a unique attribute of connecting
different people
 Bridge engineering is one of the fascinating fields in civil
engineering calling for expertise in many areas: structural
analysis and design, geotechniques, traffic projection,
surveying, runoff calculation and methods of construction
Components of a bridge
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types

 Slab bridges

 Slab Stringer bridges – Temcha river bridge

1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .

Temcha bridge from below

1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .

 Arch bridge: example is Abay bridge on Goha

Tsion – Dejen road
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .

 West Lilac, California, overpass arch

1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .

 Truss arch-New River gorge bridge, USA

1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .

 Truss bridge: New Orleans through truss bridge

1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .

 Cable stayed bridge: Hidassie bridge

1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .

 Suspension bridge: Brooklyn bridge, New York

1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .

 Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan

1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .

 Movable bridge
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .

 Four level directional interchange

1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .

 Interchange in San Diego

1.3 Historical Development

 The Historical development of bridges is closely

linked with the history of human civilization
 Nature fashioned the first bridges
– Tree fallen accidentally across a stream is the earliest
beam type bridge
– The natural rock arch formed by erosion of loose soil
below is the earliest form of arch bridges
– Creepers hanging from tree to tree that allow monkeys to
cross were for runners of suspension bridges
1.3 Historical Development Contd. . . .

 Man imitated nature and started to build bridges

 Fig. 1.1 outlines the development of the various forms
of bridges
 Based on structural action, there are four basic types
of bridges: beam, cantilever, suspension and arch
bridges.
Live Loads Contd . . .
1.4 Elements of a Bridge Project

 Design of bridges requires collection of

extensive data which is then used in
reviewing possible options and narrowing
down to a short list of bridge types
 Checklist of items to be included in work
plan (typical in planning a bridge project)
include the followings
Elements of a Bridge Project

 Feasibility Phase – determines if the bridge is viable or not

 Assembly of design criteria – focus at establishing
design Standards & data collection
 Design phase – performs design per the established design
standard & data collected
 Construction phase – implementation of the designed works
 Performance phase – operational and maintenances
 Feasibility Phase:

 Data collection (Maps & condition survey)

 Topographical surveys
 Hydrological survey & information
 Geological and geotechnical information
 Site investigation requirements for soil and rock evaluation
 Meteorological and aerodynamic data
 Assembly of basic criteria
 Likely budget
Assembly of design criteria:

 Data and properties on the material to be used including

steel, concrete, timber, masonry,
 Foundation considerations;
 Hydraulic considerations, flood, scour;
 Loading and design criteria;
 Clearance height and width (such as for navigation or
traffic);
 Criteria for gradients, alignment, etc,;
 Hazards such as impact, accident;
Assembly of design criteria: contd . . .

 proximity to other engineering works

 functional requirements;
 transportation and traffic planning;
 highway and/or railway engineering aspects;
 drainage requirements;
 provision for services (water, sewage, power,
electricity, telephone, communications links)
 design life and durability considerations
Design phase:

 Choice of bridge:
 Detailed design of bridge including
superstructure, foundations & substructure;
 Production of drawings and documentation,
 Preparation of quality assurance plan;
 Estimation of cost and program
Construction phase:

 contractual matters;
 construction methods;
 budget and financial control;
 quality control;
 supervision of construction;
 commissioning;
 operating, inspection and maintenance schedules
for each part of the work.
Performance phase:

 Obligations of owner;
 Management of facility;
 Inspection, maintenance and repair;
 Rehabilitation and refurbishment requirements
(change of loading, widening, change of use and
durability aspects);
 Decommissioning and demolition
1.5 Design Objectives

 The objectives in a bridge design are: safety,

serviceability, economy, constructability and
aesthetics
 Safety is ensured by requirements of structural
induced stresses & strengths of the materials
 Serviceability consists of satisfying requirements
of deformation, durability, inspect-ability,
maintainability and ride-ability
1.5 Design Objectives Contd . . .

 Deformation - excessive deformations that cause

undesirable structural or psychological effects
should be avoided
 Durability - contract documents specify quality of
materials to be used and standards of fabrication
and erection of elements to ensure durability
 Inspect-ability - inspection ladders, walkways,
catwalks and covered access holes will be provided
where other means of inspection are not practical
1.5 Design Objectives Contd . . .

 Maintainability- structural systems whose

maintenance is expected to be difficult should be
avoided
 Ride-ability- the deck of the bridge will be designed
to permit smooth movement of traffic. The number
of deck joints will be kept to a practicable minimum
1.5 Design Objectives Contd . . .

 Economy - structural types, span lengths and

materials should be selected based on cost. The
cost of future expenditures during the projected
service life of the bridge should also be
considered
 Constructability – only bridge types that can be
constructed using available methods, equipment
and machineries should be designed
1.5 Design Objectives Contd . . .

 Aesthetics – buildings are designed by Architects

and bridges are designed by Civil Engineers. Bridges
serve for 100yrs or more and therefore should
– complement their surroundings
– be graceful in form and present an appearance of adequate
strength.
 It is worthwhile to make every bridge have an
appearance of quality and careful craftsmanship
 Aesthetic techniques that may be used to improve
appearance are: Proportions, Pleasing Shapes and
Compatibility
1.5 Design Objectives Contd . . .
 Proportions
– all the members should bear a pleasing relationship
to each other
– columns should not be slender nor superstructures
too heavy
– span lengths should be chosen carefully
– The bridge should look like it was designed as a
whole, not as a lot of individual parts glued together
1.5 Design Objectives Contd . . .

 Pleasing Shapes
– avoid stereotyped round or square columns and flat
soffits to improve appearance
– Make all columns or piers of the same size for
aesthetics and reusability of formwork
– Use ledges to break large expanses of concrete
– Slope the sides of box girders back under the
bridge and give the edges a fillet to diminish the
apparent depth
1.5 Design Objectives Cont . . .

 Compatibility – bridges should fit their surroundings, they

should look they belong to the surrounding

 Order of importance:
- horizontal and vertical alignment and position in the
environment
- superstructure type (girder, arch, etc)
- pier placement
- abutment placement and height
- superstructure shape (haunched, tapered depth)
- pier shape
- abutment shape, parapet and railing details, surface colors and
texture and ornament.
1.6 Design Philosophy
1.6 Design Philosophy Contd . . .
1.6 Design Philosophy Contd . . .

 The different limit states may be defined now

– Strength limit state – is meant to ensure that strength
and stability, both local and global, are provided to
resist the specified statistically significant load
combinations that a bridge is expected to be subjected
to in its design life
– Service limit state – is restrictions on stress,
deformation and crack width under regular service
conditions
1.6 Design Philosophy Contd . . .

 Fatigue and fracture limit state – the fatigue limit

state is restrictions on stress range as a result of a
single design truck occurring at the number of
expected stress range cycles. The fracture limit state
is taken as a set of material toughness requirements.
 Extreme event limit states - this is taken to ensure the
structural survival of a bridge during a major
earthquake or flood, or when collided by a vehicle,
vessel, possibly under scoured conditions.
1.6 Design Philosophy Contd . . .

 Ductility – ductile structures give ample warning

before they lose load carrying capacity where as
brittle structures collapse without giving warning.
 Redundancy – indeterminate structures survive
overloads and extreme events due to multiple load
paths and redistribution of internal forces